Unit. "It is the province of knowledge to speak And it is the privilege of wisdom to listen." Oliver Wendell Holmes

Transcription

1 0 TheAural OralApproaches Unit 5 THEAURAL ORAL APPROACHES "Itistheprovinceofknowledgetospeak Anditistheprivilegeofwisdomtolisten." OliverWendellHolmes

2 1 TheAural OralApproaches THEAURAL ORALAPPROACHES Introduction AlthoughFrançoisGouinandothershadbrought inductiveteachingwithanemphasisonlisteningand speakingskillstotheforeofthelanguage teachingfield,their DirectApproachhadsignificantdrawbacks.Themain problemwasthatfewpeopletraveledinternationallyinthe latenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies.asaresult, therewasashortageofthefluentsecondlanguageteachers theapproachrequired,andmostlearnersdidfarmore readingintheirsecondlanguagethanlisteningorspeaking. Forthesereasons,thefieldtemporarilyshiftedtothe ReadingApproach,whichfocusedonteachingreadingskills ratherthanlisteningorspeaking.grammarwasagaintaught throughdeductiveteaching,butonlyinsofarasitwas requiredforreadingcomprehension. Characteristicofthehistoryofthesecondlanguage teachingfield,however,learnerswouldsoonagainbecome frustratedthatevenafteryearsofstudy,theycouldnotcarry onaconversationintheirsecondlanguage.thetrendwould shiftagaintoafocusonteachinglisteningandspeakingskills. WhatresultedweretheAural OralApproaches,which emergedintheunitedstatesandbritaininthe1940 sandin amatterofdecadeswereverypopular.infact,elementsof theseaural OralApproachesarestillusedheavilyinmany secondlanguagecoursesoftoday,justasthetotalphysical Response(TPR)methodremainsinregularuseasavestige ofthedirectapproach.thisunitwilldiscussthehistorical backgroundandprominentfeaturesoftheaural Oral Approaches.Wewillthendiscussthebenefitsanddrawbacks oftheseapproachesandhowtheycanbeadaptedtobe compatiblewithmorecontemporarylanguageteaching approaches.finally,wewillexploreavarietyofteaching

3 2 TheAural OralApproaches techniquesthatapplytheaural OralApproaches. 战 - - 国际贸 历 战 - 军 报 - 监 敌军 报 战 - - 国际贸 Theoretical&HistoricalBackground Morethananyotherforce,itwasprobablyWorldWarII thatbroughtthesecondlanguage teachingfieldbackto focusingonteachinglisteningandspeakingskills.suddenly, therewasagreatdemandforinternationalcommunication betweenallies,nottomentionforpeoplewiththeforeign languageskillstolisteninontheoralcommunicationsofthe enemy.thelatterwasmadepossiblebyincreaseduseof telephonesandcommunicationviaradiosignals.also,after thewarended,worldtravelbecamepopular,and internationaltradehascontinuedtoincreasetothisday. Althoughawidevarietyofapproacheshavebeen experimentedwithsince,listeningandspeakinghavenever againbeenignoredastheyoncewere. WhentheAmericanmilitarysuddenlyneededaquickand effectivewaytoteachforeignlanguageskillsduringworld WarII,theyturnedtoprofessionallinguists.Themilitary s callforhelpcameatatimewhenthescienceofbehaviorism wasatitspeak.(behaviorismisdiscussedingreaterdetailin theunitonearlychildhood DevelopmentTheory.)The fieldofbehaviorismincluded theworkofclassical conditioningbehaviorists suchasivanpavlov( )inRussiaandthe Americanoperant conditioningbehavioristb.f. Skinner( ).Oneof Skinner smostfamous experimentswithoperant conditioninginvolvedtraining Figure 1: B. F. Skinner Conducting Operant Conditioning Experiments with Laboratory Rats

4 3 TheAural OralApproaches laboratoryratstorepeatedlypressdownonaleverinorder toreceivefoodrewards.behaviorismdeeplyaffectedthe Americanlinguistsofthetime.Whatresultedwasatypeof linguisticsknownasstructurallinguistics.moststructural linguistsbelievedthatthebestwaytomasteranewlanguage wasthroughrepetitivepracticewithvariouslanguage structuresorsentencepatterns.learningalanguage,they thought,requiredthelearnertoform speakinghabits that conformedtothestructureofthetargetlanguage. 战 - - 国际贸 战 - - 国际贸 TheprogramsdevelopedbytheAmericanstructural linguistsofthe1940 s,then,reliedheavilyonoraldrillsand substitutionpracticeinordertoformthesespeakinghabits amonglanguagestudents.theresultwasanaural Oral ApproachthatbecameknownastheAudio LingualMethod oralm,butitwasnotonlytheamericanswhowerebusyat thetimedevelopinganewaural OralApproachtolanguage teaching. InBritain,thesomewhatsimilarSituationalApproachto syllabusdevelopmentemerged.likealm,thesituational Approachplacedprimaryimportanceonthespoken language.infact,thetwonewapproachesweresimilarin manyways,butbritishlinguistswerenotasheavily influencedbybehaviorismasweretheiramerican counterparts.britainhadherownfamouslinguist,j.r.firth ( ),whofocusedmoreonthemeaningofthe languageinagivencontext,orsituation.firthandhis successorsrealizedthatexactlythesamelanguagestructure canhavedifferentmeaningsindifferentsituations.for example,ifoneyoungstudentshowsanotherhisorher solutiontoamathproblemandasks, Isthatright? thechild trulydoesn tknowifthesolutioniscorrect.if,however,the mathteacherwalksby,pointstoastudent ssolutiontoa mathproblem,andasks, Isthatright? itmorelikelyreally means, That swrong;tryitagain. Thisnewattentiontothe

5 4 TheAural OralApproaches pragmatics ( 语 学 ) Natural Approach ( ) Communicative Approach ( 际 ) 说 点 视 头语 说 meaningoflanguagewithinagivencontextwouldgiveriseto anewfieldoflinguisticsnowknownaspragmatics. TheBritishsyllabusdesignversionoftheAural Oral Approachemphasizedlanguagepracticewithinacommon situationalcontextwherecommunicationisoftenneeded.for example,lessonsforadultsmightbeorganizedaround situationssuchas atthesupermarket or atthetrain station. AlthoughbothoftheseAural OralApproacheshave beenattackedmorerecentlybyadvocatesofthenatural ApproachandtheCommunicativeApproach(whichare discussedinmuchgreaterdetailinthetwounitsbythose titles),manymodernlanguagecoursebooksandsyllabiare stillorganizedsituationally,andmanylanguageteachers, especiallythosewhoarenotfullyfluentinthetargetlanguage themselves,stillrelyagreatdealonthetypeofchoral practiceandsubstitutiondrillsthataretypicalofalm. 输 语 结 词汇输 张 语 CharacteristicsoftheAudio LingualMethod BeinganAural OralApproach,ALMfocusesprimarilyon thespokenlanguage listeningandspeaking,especiallywith beginners.theteachingofreadingandwritingispostponed, butmaybeincludedoncethestudentshavereachedacertain levelofauralandoralproficiency.newlanguageisusually introducedwithinadialogue,andstudentsareexpectedtodo agreatdealofmemorizationandoralmimicryofwhatthe teachersays.studenterrorsareoftencorrected,andaccurate pronunciationisexpectedfromtheverybeginning. Theinputthatstudentsreceiveiscarefullycontrolled. Grammaticalstructuresarepresentedinalogicalorder progressingfromthemostsimpletothemorecomplex. Althoughstructuresaresequenced,grammarisstilltaught inductively.studentsarenotovertlytaughtgrammarrules, butratherexpectedtograduallycometounderstandthem throughrepeatedexposuretostructures.vocabularyisalso

6 5 TheAural OralApproaches severelylimitedatfirstandexpandedasthestudents progress.oftenvocabularytobetaughtinacertainlessonis selectedaccordingtohowwellitwillsubstituteintothe targetsentencepatterns.forexample,ifthetargetsentence patternismayiborrowa/an(noun)?thewordspen,pencil, eraser,andrulermayalsobetaughtinthesamelessonin ordertoallowsubstitutionpracticeasfollows: T:Pen. Ss:MayIborrowapen? T:Pencil. Ss:MayIborrowapencil? T:Eraser. Ss:MayIborrowaneraser? T:Ruler. Ss:MayIborrowaruler? (andsoon) slot ( ) - 单 换 - 双 换 Thispatternofpracticeiscalledasingle slot substitutionbecausetherepeatedstructureisidenticalwith theexceptionoftheinsertionofasinglewordorphrase, alwaysinthesameplaceor slot. Asstudentsbecomemore proficient,theteachermayalsoengagethemindouble slot substitutionpractice,usingthefollowingsortofpattern: T:I/pen. Ss:MayIborrowapen? T:She/pencil. Ss:Maysheborrowapencil? T:He/eraser. Ss:Mayheborrowaneraser? T:We/ruler. Ss:Mayweborrowaruler? 见练习 齐声 练 连环 练 (andsoon) Therearetwosortsofdrillpracticethatarecommonto traditionalalmteaching.thefirstisthechoraldrillinwhich

7 6 TheAural OralApproaches allthestudentsrespondtotheteacher sstimulustogether. Theotherisachaindrillinwhichonlyonestudentatatime respondsinturn takingfashion.thelatterismoreoftenused topracticequestionandanswerpatterns: S1:MayIborrowapen? S2:Yes,youmay.MayIborrowapencil? S3:Yes,youmay.MayIborrowaneraser? S4:Yes,youmay.MayIborrowaruler? (andsoon) 评 顾语 OnecharacteristicofALMthattheapproachisveryoften criticizedforisthatlanguagestructuresandvocabularyare oftenmanipulatedwithoutregardtothecontextinwhichthe languageistobeused.forexample,theprecedingdrills wouldbedoneregardlessofwhetherornotanystudent reallyneededtoborrowanything.atitsworst,thiscontextfreemanipulationoflanguagecanresultinthestudentsbeing expectedtosaythingsthatwouldnotlikelybesaidinreal communication: T:Desk. Ss:MayIborrowadesk? T:Trashcan. Ss:MayIborrowatrashcan? T:Door. Ss:MayIborrowadoor? Thisblatantdisregardforcontextorsituationisoneofthe factorsthatclearlydistinguishesalmfromitsbritishaural OralApproachcounterpart,theSituationalApproach. 点 视 说 读写 视 际 见 词语 严 语 CharacteristicsoftheSituationalApproach AswithALM,theSituationalApproachplacesprimary importanceonlisteningandspeakingskills.teachingof readingandwritingisintentionallypostponed.newlanguage maybepresentedwithinadialogueorsomeothertypeof

8 7 TheAural OralApproaches spokendelivery,butinanycaseisfirstpracticedbystudents orally.grammaticalstructuresandvocabularyarealso strictlycontrolledandgenerallyprogressfromsimpleto complex,butunlikealm,agreaterpriorityisgiventothose wordsandpatternsthataremostusefulincommon communicativesituations.infact,theorganizationofthe courseorthesyllabusisdesignedaroundsuchsituations.a fewsuchsituationswerementionedearlier,butwhen teachingchildren,thesituationsusedshouldreflectthelifeof younglearners,notadults.ratherthanhavingsituationslike atthetrainstation theywouldbealongthelinesof inthe lunchroom. AswithALM,grammarislearnedinductively. TheSituationalApproachdoesnotallowthelanguageto bemanipulatedwithoutregardtothecontextsimplyforthe sakeofsubstitutionpractice.substitutionpracticemay, however,beincludedinthesituationalapproachsolongas thesituationinquestiontrulyallowsforit.followingour previousexampleofasituationinthelunchroom, substitutionpracticemayconformtothefollowingpattern: T:Rice. Ss:MayIhavesomemorerice,please? T:Juice. Ss:MayIhavesomemorejuice,please? T:Fruit. Ss:MayIhavesomemorefruit,please? T:Milk. Ss:MayIhavesomemoremilk,please? (andsoon) AlthoughALMdiscouragestheuseofthemothertonguein theclassroom,useofthelearners nativelanguagewas strictlyforbiddenintheformalversionofthesituational Approach.

9 8 TheAural OralApproaches 说 点 师 语 齐声 练 链 练 单 双 换 练 动 标结 换词语 练 说 减 轻师 学负担 AdvantagesoftheAudio LingualMethod ALMhasonesignificantadvantageoveritspredecessor, thedirectapproach,inthatitdoesnotrequireteachersto havenative likecompetenceinthetargetlanguage.because structuresandvocabularyarestrictlycontrolledinalm, teachersonlyneedtobeproficientwiththesamelanguage targetstheirstudentsarelearning.althoughinmoderntimes therearefarmorefluentlybilinguallanguageteachers availableworldwide,incertainregionswherelanguage teachinghasexperiencedaphenomenalrecentgrowthin popularity,suchasasiaandlatinamerica,thereremainsa shortageofteacherswhohavenative likefluencyinthe targetlanguage. EspeciallyinthecaseofEnglishteaching,schoolsoften addressthisproblembyimportingnativespeakersofthe languagefromabroadtoteachintheirclassrooms. Unfortunately,professionalnativeEnglish speakinglanguage teachersarenotofteneagertoleavetheirfamily,friends,and motherculturebehindandmovetoanewcountrytoteach English.Thisproblemisoftencompoundedbyeconomic differencesbetweenenglishspeakingnationsandthose whereenglishisbeingtaughtasaforeignlanguage.notonly wouldsuchnative speakingteachershavetoleavetheirhome country,butalsotheywouldhavetodosoexpectingto receivealowersalary.asaresult,manyschoolsresortto hiringnon professionalteacherswithanadventurous travelingspirit,simplybecausetheyarenativespeakersof English.Inthisway,schoolsoftensacrificeteaching professionalisminordertohaveaccesstonativespeaking instructors.becausealmdoesnotrequireteacherstohave native likefluency,thisdemandfornativespeakerscanbe alleviated. AsecondadvantageofALMisthatitisaremarkablyeasy

10 9 TheAural OralApproaches approachtouse,evenwithratherlargeclasses.the approach sheavyrelianceonchoraldrills,chaindrills,and simplesingle slotanddouble slotsubstitutionpracticehelps tomakethisso.furthermore,sincetheapproachallowsthe languagetobemanipulatedwithoutregardtocontext, teacherscandevelopavarietyofadaptabledrillgamesand activitiesthatcanbeusedoverandoveragainwithnearly anysetoftargetstructuresandsubstitutionvocabulary.(see, forexample,theselectionofalmtechniquesinthe Applicationssectionofthisunitortheadaptabletechniques describedintheflashcardactivitiesandwhiteboard Activitiesunitsofthiscourse.) Finally,ALMhastheadvantagethatitendorses postponingtheteachingofreadingandwriting,simplifying theteacher slessonplanningneedsandallowingbeginning studentstofocusonjusttwoskills.opponentsofalm, however,arguethatthisfocusonjusttwoofthefourprimary skillsisactuallydetrimental,eventothestudents auraland oralprogress. 说 点 识 发 滞 学 时 词义 学 应 变 课 问题 DisadvantagesoftheAudio LingualMethod Basedonlyontheprevioussection,onemightbeledto believethatalmistheperfectlanguageteachingapproach. Unfortunately,theapproach,atleastwhenusedexclusively andinitsmosttraditionalform,alsohassignificant disadvantages. SomehavecriticizedALM,forexample,fordelayingthe teachingofliteracyskills.manyhavearguedthatlearning howtoreadandwriteanewlanguageatthesametimeoneis learninglisteningandspeakingactuallyhelpsthe developmentoftheauralandoralskills.foronething,when astudentseesawrittensentence,itiseasierforhimorherto seewhereonewordendsandanewonebeginsthanwhen dependingonlyonauralinput.forexample,manystudents

11 10 TheAural OralApproaches wholearnexclusivelythroughalmrespondalmost roboticallytothequestionhowareyou?withwhatsoundsto themlikeananswerofonelongword,imfinethankyouandyou (I mfine,thankyou,andyou?)suchstudentsmaynot, however,reallyunderstandthemeaningoftheindividual word fine (orevenrealizethatitisadistinctword)andbe abletouseiteffectivelyinacommunicativecontextother thanexchanginggreetings. Similarly,withoutseeingI mfine,thankyou,andyou?in writtenform,wouldthestudentrealizethattheiransweris reallyalsoaquestion?ifnot,whenthestudentcomesinto contactwithanativespeaker,whosegreetingsmayormay notconformtothe speakinghabit thestudenthas memorized,thefollowingsortofexchangecouldoccur: S:Hello.Howareyou? NS:I mfine,thanks.howareyou? S:I mfine,thankyou,andyou? NS:Um...I mstillfine,thanks. Additionally,iftheonlyspeakinghabitresponsethe studenthaslearnedtothisgreeting,isi mfine,thankyou,and you?howwouldheorsherespondifasked, Howareyou? whenfeelingincrediblyill?similarly,eventhoughanalm studentmayalsohavelearnedastructurethatcontainsthe wordtoday,heorsheisoftenthrownoffwhenasked, How areyoutoday? ratherthansimply, Howareyou? ALMstudentsalsosometimeshavedifficultyusinga particularstructuretheyhavelearnedinonecontextwhenit isneededinaratherdifferentsituation.forexample,ifthe structuremayiborrowa(noun)?wastaughtexclusivelywith substitutiondrillsinvolvingclassroomobjects,itmaynot comenaturallytothestudenttousethesamestructureto ask, MayIborrowadollar? or MayIborrowanumbrella? Also,becauseALMdrillpracticeoftenpresentsanartificial

12 11 TheAural OralApproaches context,thenpracticessubstitutionswithituntilspeaking habitsareformed,studentsoftenbegintoignorethe statementorquestiontheyhearbecausetheyalreadyknow whatthequestionandtheanswerwillbe.similarly,the studentsmayactuallybepayingattentiontovisualcues ratherthanthelanguagetheyhearinordertodeterminehow torespond.asurewaytotestifastudentsuffersfromthis tendencyistopointtotheclassroomclockandaskthechild, What syourname? ItisremarkablehowmanyALM studentswillanswerwithsomethinglike, It sthreeo clock. 点 师 语 说 难 为 许 换练习 顾 难 课课 戏 动进 练 迟 读写 学 Finally,whenlanguagepracticeislimitedmostlytochoral orchaindrills,someproblemsmayoccurwithclassroom management.forexample,iftheentireclassischanting answerstoquestionsinunison,asinachoraldrill,itisvery easyforlessmotivatedorshystudentstopretendtheyare respondingwhilenotreallysayinganything.also,whiledoing choraldrills,manyteachersallowthemselvestoalwaysfill theroleofaskingthequestionswhilestudentsalways respond.thismayresultinlanguagelearnerswhocan answermanyquestionsfluently,butcannotaskany.thisis certainlynotconducivetotruecommunication.finally,if chaindrillsaredoneinapredictablepattern(upanddown therowsofatraditionalclassroom,forexample)students tendtonotpayattentionuntilitisnearlytheirturntospeak andquicklyloseattentionagainoncetheyhavehadtheir turn.especiallyinalargeclasswhereachaindrillcantakea longtimetogetallthewayaround,thissortoflackof attentivenessdoesnotfacilitateefficientlanguagelearning. AdvantagesoftheSituationalApproach Duetotheirmanysimilarities,theSituationalApproach enjoysmanyofthesameadvantagesasalm.thesituational Approachalsodoesnotrequireteacherstohavenative like competenceinthetargetlanguage.again,thisistheresultof

13 12 TheAural OralApproaches thetargetgrammaticalstructuresandvocabularybeing carefullycontrolled. AswithALM,theSituationalApproachisalsorelatively easytouse.however,theapproachisslightlymore challengingforteachersthanalmbecausemanipulationof thelanguagewithoutregardtothesituationalcontextforthe sakeofsubstitutionpracticeisnotpermitted.situational Approachteachersmustmakeextraeffortstoestablisha widevarietyofmocksituationswithintheirclassroom, possiblyusingillustrations,props,role plays,andsoon.this factalsomakesitmoredifficulttoadaptdrillgamesand activitiesforusefromoneunittoanother. AlsolikeALM,theSituationalApproachadvocates delayingtheteachingofreadingandwritingskills,allowing teachersandbeginningstudentstofocusonthelisteningand speakingskills.aspreviouslymentioned,however,itis debatablewhetherornotthisistrulybeneficialtothe students auralandoraldevelopment. 点 读写 滞 穷尽 对 结 举 语给 学 带来 难 DisadvantagesoftheSituationalApproach JustastheSituationalApproachandALMsharemany advantages,sodotheysharemanydisadvantages.for example,thesamecriticswhoattackalmfordelayingthe teachingofreadingandwritingskillshaveattackedthe SituationalApproachonthesamegrounds. AswithALM,unlesslessonsfollowingtheSituational Approachtakeintoaccountthepossiblevariationsthatmay existwithinagivensituation,studentsmayneverlearnhow torespondundercertaincircumstances.thatis,justaswith ALM,studentsoftheSituationalApproachneedtolearnmore thanoneresponsetothequestionhowareyou?forexample, incasetheyfindthemselvesinasituationwherethereare askedthequestionwhennotfeelingwell.

14 13 TheAural OralApproaches Also,sincetheSituationalApproachstrictlycontrolsand sequencestheorderinwhichparticulargrammatical structuresarepracticed,agivenstructuremayonlybe practicedwithinasinglesituationalcontext.ahallmarkof Firthianlinguistics,however,istheacknowledgementthat thesamestructurecanbeandoftenisusedindifferentways inentirelydifferentsituationalcontexts.ifastudenthas practicedagivenstructureonlyinonecontext,willheorshe bereadilyawareofwhenitcanbeusedinothersituations? Finally,becausetheSituationalApproachforbidstheuse ofthemothertongueintheclassroom,studentsmay sometimesnotunderstandthelessonanddonotyethavethe languageproficiencytoformulateanappropriateclarification questioninenglish.similarly,theteachermaysometimes haveagreatdealofdifficultycommunicatingthemeaningof moreabstractwordssuchassorry,memory,orbelieve. 说 点 练 换练习 说读写 顾 问 虑 应 灵 处 课 练随 OvercomingtheDisadvantages oftheaural OralApproaches AlthoughthedisadvantagestousingtheAural Oral ApproacheshavecausedmanySLAprofessionalstodiscount thementirely,manyofthesedisadvantagescanbeovercome withawarenessandcarefulplanningoflessons,leavingusto enjoytheirvaluableadvantages.furthermore,eliminationof themajorityofthedisadvantagesevenmakesthese traditionalapproachesrathercompatiblewithmore contemporarylanguageteachingapproachessuchasthe CommunicativeApproach,whichisdiscussedingreatdetail inanotherunitofthiscourse. Forexample,theevidencesupportingtheteachingofthe fourprimarylanguageskillssimultaneouslyisfairly convincing.evenso calledfour skillsapproaches,however, allowtheteacherfreedomtofocusoncertainskillsduring differentphasesofthelesson.manyofthetechniquesofthe

15 14 TheAural OralApproaches Audio LingualApproaches,suchaschoraldrills,chaindrills, andsubstitutionpractice,canthusbeusedwithinafour skills programduringasinglelessonphasewhileotherphasesof thelessonmayfocusonreadingandwritingskillsinvolving thesamelanguagetargets. ThevalidconcernsovertheAudio LingualMethod s willingnesstomanipulatethetargetlanguageforpractice sakewithoutregardtocontextisactuallyansweredbyher sisterapproach.thesituationalapproachonlyallows substitutionpracticeandchoralandchaindrillsifthe substitutionsusedaresuitabletothesituationbeing presentedinthelesson.inthissense,thesituational ApproachwasclearlysuperiortoALMandeffectively eliminatesalm sgreatestcriticism. Concernsoverstudentsfindingthemselvesin communicativecontextsforwhichtheydidnotspecifically practicecanlargelybeovercomebyteachersandcurriculum developersconsciouslythinkingthroughthefullrangeof variationsanyparticularsituationmaytakeandgiving studentspracticewithlanguagetosuitthesesituational differences.followingthepreviousexample,then,students wouldnotonlybetaughttheresponsei mfine,thankyou,and you?butalsoresponsessuchasthefollowing: I mgreat! I mok. I malittletired. I mnotsogood. I vegotacold/headache/stomachache/theflu. Theteachershouldalsointentionallyintroduceavariety offormstheaccompanyingquestionstructuremighttake, dependingofcourseuponwhattensesandgrammatical structurestheyhavestudiedinthepast.forexample, variationsofhowareyou?mayincludethefollowing:

16 15 TheAural OralApproaches Howareyoutoday? Howareyouthismorning? Howwereyoulastnight? Howhaveyoubeen? Howhaveyoubeenlately? Similarly,curriculumdevelopersorteachersmight concentratethepracticeforagivenstructurewithinacertain situationalcontext,butthenroundoutthelessonby introducingothersituationsinwhichthesamestructure mightalsobeuseful.forexample,althoughthestructuremay Iborrowa/an(noun)?mightbeintroducedwithinthe situationofborrowingclassroommaterials,theteacher shouldextendthelessonbypresentingothersituationssuch asthefollowing: T:Youwenttoyourfriend shousewhenitwassunny,butnowyou wanttogohomeandit sraining. Ss:MayIborrowanumbrella? T:You reatyourfriend shouse,andyouneedtocallyourmom. Ss:MayIborrowyourtelephone? T:Youwanttogotothepark.Yourbicycleisbroken,butyoursister hasone. Ss:MayIborrowyourbicycle? T:You rewithafriendandwanttobuyasoda,butdon thaveany money. Ss:MayIborrow(adollar)? T:You reboredathome,butyourbrotherhaslotsoftoysthatyou like. Ss:MayIborrowyour(videogame)? Presentingtheabovecontexts,however,wouldbe challenginginabeginningclasswheretheteacherwasnot allowedtousethemothertonguetosetthescene.toaddress thisissueaswellastheconcernforstudentsbeingunableto askquestionsinthemothertongueiftheybecomeconfused,

17 16 TheAural OralApproaches theteachercanestablishsomesortofvisualcuethat indicateswhenitisandisnotacceptabletousethenative tonguetoaskquestionsorprovidedescriptionsofsituational contexts.forquestionsorprovidedescriptionsofsituational contexts.forexample,asmallredflagcanbedisplayedinthe classroomduringactivitiesorlessonphaseswhenthemother tongueisforbidden,butagreenflagwouldindicatethatthe teacherandstudentsarefreetousethenativelanguagewhen necessaryforpurposesofclarification.similarly,theteacher maywanttosetasidefiveminutesatthebeginningandatthe endofeachclasssessionduringwhichtheday sstructureand vocabularyobjectiveswillbeintroducedinthemothertongue andstudentswillbeallowedtoaskquestionsintheirnative languageaboutpreviouslessonsorthelessontheyhavejust experienced. Finally,classroommanagementissuesduringchoraland chaindrillpracticecanalsobelargelyeliminated.for example,itiseasierforateachertolistentobesurethatall studentsarerespondingduringchoraldrillsiftheclassis brokenintosmallergroupsandonlyonegrouprespondsata time.suchgroupingcanalsobeaneffectivewaytoincrease studentpracticeofthequestionstructuresinsteadofthe teacherusuallyaskingthequestions.onegroupcanaskthe targetquestion,andanothergroupcanrespond.toavoid studentsignoringtheauralinputofthequestion,assuming theyalreadyknowwhatitwillbe,theteachershould randomlyinterjectotherquestionsthestudentshave previouslystudiedandmakesurethestudentsrespondtothe questionasked,notjusttothelesson sprimaryquestion target. Inthecaseofchaindrills,theyshouldneverbedoneina predictablepatternunlessdonewithinanactivitythatwill ensureallthechildrenpaycloseattention,evenwhenitisnot theirturn.teachersshouldalsooccasionallycallonsome

18 17 TheAural OralApproaches studentstorespondmorethanonceinagivendrillsothat thosewhohavealreadyrespondeddonotassumetheycan thenlosefocusbecausetheywillnotbecalledonagain. Anothertechniqueistodochaindrillsincontinuously rotationfashioninsmallergroups.forexample,studentscan bedividedintogroupsoffourandthefourstudentsineach groupengageinrotatingpracticeinthefollowingsortof pattern: S1:MayIborrowapen? S2:Yes,youmay.MayIborrowapencil? S3:Yes,youmay.MayIborrowaneraser? S4:Yes,youmay.MayIborrowaruler? S1:Yes,youmay.MayIborrowanumbrella? S2:Yes,youmay.MayIborrowadollar? S3:Yes,youmay.MayIborrowa... (andsoon) Anotherwaytoensurethatstudentsmaintaintheir attentionduringchaindrillsistogobackaroundthe classroomasecondtime,challengingstudentstoremember responsesgivenbyvariousotherstudentsbeforethem.if studentsknowinadvancethatthiswilloccur,theywillbe motivatedtopayverycloseattentiontotheresponsemade byeachandeveryclassmate,evenaftertheyhavehadtheir ownturnintheinitialdrill. 齐声 练 动 带点 轻 缓 来 栏谁 掷 选词 掷 谁赢 掷 掷 抛 Applications Herewewillrecommendavarietyofactivitiesthatcan helptokeepstudentsactivelyengagedduringthechoraland chainsubstitutiondrillstypicaloftheaural OralApproaches. First,wewillpresentactivitiesthatareusefulforwhole class orgroupchoralpractice.thenwewillintroduceactivities thatareusefulforwhole classorsmall groupchaindrills. Althoughtheseactivitiesareadaptableforusewithawide varietyoftargetstructuresandsubstitutionvocabulary,

19 18 TheAural OralApproaches teachersareremindedthatitisbesttotrytoprovideatleast onesituationalcontextinwhichthestructuresbeing practicedarecommonlyused. ChoralDrillActivities TheChoraldrillsareanexcellentwaytogiveevery studentintheclassagreatdealoforallanguagepractice.this isbecauseallthestudents,oratleastagroupofstudents,can practicesimultaneously.choraldrillsarealsoless intimidatingforchildrenthanarechaindrillsbecausetheydo notputindividualstudentsonthespottoproducenew languagetargetsinfrontoftheirpeers.forthisreason,choral drillsareagoodwaytobeginproductionpracticeofnew targets. Ifthelanguagetargetsincludequestionandanswer patterns,itisimportanttoengagetheclassorgroupsin producingthequestionsaswellastheanswers.tofacilitate this,theteachermaywanttopostalargequestionmarkin theroomordrawoneonthewhiteboard.theteachercan simplyindicatewhichgroupistoaskthequestion,thenpoint tothequestionmarkandcounttothree.at three the indicatedgroupshouldchorallyaskthequestionbeing practicedintheday slesson,thenanothergroupshould chorallyprovidetheanswer. Inchoraldrills,theremustbesomesourceofsubstitution vocabularythatwillindicatetostudentswhichkey vocabularywordorwordstheyaretoinsertinthetarget structureineithersingle slotordouble slotsubstitutions. Theteachercansimplyprovidethesewordsorally,aswas doneinmanyoftheexamplesgiveninthisunit,ortheycanbe providedusingpicturesoractions.theycouldalsobe providedbystudents,asisthecaseinsomeoftheactivities thatfollow.theselattertwomethodsofproviding substitutionsgivestudentsadditionalpracticeinidentifying

20 19 TheAural OralApproaches vocabularyitems. Herewewillbeginbydescribingsomechoraldrill activitiesthatrequirenospecialmaterials.wewillthenmove ontoactivitiesthatrequirematerialsthatteacherscaneasily makethemselves. - 带点 轻 缓 来 ShowSomeEmotion Theteacherpresentsthetarget structurethenprovidesasuitablesubstitutionvocabulary wordorcallsforstudentstoprovideone.firsttheclass chantsthestructureandsubstitutionchorallyinanormal voice.thentheteachercallsoutanemotion(e.g.,angry,sad, excited,scared).theclassthenchantsthestructureagain,but doessoinavoicethatreflectsthegivenemotion.practice continueswithothersubstitutionvocabularyandemotions. High,Low,Fast,&Slow Thetargetstructureanda substitutionvocabularywordisprovided.thestudentsfirst chantitchorallyinanormalvoice.theythenstandontheir toesandchantitinahigh pitchedvoice.thentheysquat downandrepeatitinaverydeepvoice.finally,theyleanto therightandrepeatitasquicklyaspossible,thentotheleft andrepeatitvery,veryslowly.theprocessisrepeatedwith othervocabularysubstitutions. Tennis Theclassroomandstudentsaredividedintotwo opposingsides.theteacherpresentsthetargetsentence patternstobepracticed,thencallsoutacategoryofwords thatwillmakesuitablesingle slotsubstitutions.forexample, ifthetargetstructureismayihavesome(nouns)?theteacher maycallforsubstitutionsthatarenamesoffoods.(ifthe studentshaveafairlyextensivevocabulary,theteachermight wanttoprovideanarrowercategorysuchasfruits.)the teacherthenmotionstoonesideoftheclassroom.any studentonthatsideoftheclassroomcancallouta substitutionvocabularyitemthatfitsthecategory(e.g., apples,bananas,oranges).whentheteacherhearsan

21 20 TheAural OralApproaches acceptablewordfromoneofthestudents,heorsherepeats thewordloudly,andallthestudentsonthatsideofthe classroomchorallyinsertitintothetargetpattern.ifitisa question,theopposingteamanswers: T:Fruits! S:Apples! T:Apples! G1:MayIhavesomeapples? G2:Yes,youmay. Theteacherthenmotionstotheothersideoftheroom. Thesecondgroupmustnameadifferentvocabularyitemthat fitsthecategory.againtheteacherpicksoutawordprovided byastudentandrepeatsit.thisgroupthenchantsthetarget structureinsertingthenewsubstitutionword.theteacher thengoestothefirstgroupagainforasubstitutionwordnot yetcalled.playbouncesbackandforthbetweenthetwo groupsuntilonegroupgetsstumpedandcannotcomeup withawordfittingthecategorythathasnotalreadybeen called.theotherteamhaswonapoint.theteachercanthen provideanothercategory(e.g.,drinks,vegetables,school supplies)andanotherroundisplayed. 栏谁 HighHurdles Onthewhiteboard,drawthreecolumnsof boxes.thefirstcolumnisonlythreeboxeshigh;thesecondis fourhigh;thethirdisfiveboxestall.theseare hurdles that thestudentsmustgetover.ineachbox,writeavocabulary wordthatwillworkinthetargetsentencestructure.(for preliteratestudentsplacevocabularypicturesintheboxes usingadhesivetapeormagnetsifyourwhiteboardis magnetic.)putthewordsthatthestudentsneedthemost practicewithnearthebottomofthetallercolumns.dividethe classintotwoteamsandplaceacoloredmagnetorsome othertypeofmarkerforeachteamnexttotheshortest column.givethefirststudentononeteamadieandhave

22 21 TheAural OralApproaches Figure2:HighHurdles themrollit.ifthedierollstudentononeteamadieandhave themrollit.ifthedierollisathreeorhigher,theteamwill clearthefirsthurdle.theirmarkerismovednexttothefirst boxofthefirstcolumnandthestudentsonthatteammust chantthevocabularywordortargetsentencestructurewith thewordinserted.thenmovethemarkeruptothesecond boxandhavethestudentsrepeatusingthatword.thengoon tothethird.oncetheyclearthethird,havethemallshout "Wheee!"astheirmarkerslidesdowntheothersidetothe baseofthesecondhurdle.if,however,theydon'trollahigh enoughnumbertoclearthehurdle,theygoupthenumberof boxesrolled,thenslidebackdowntothebottomonthesame sideofthehurdleandmusttryitagainontheirnextturn(see Figure2).Ifateamdoesapoorjobofchantinginunisonorif anystudentontheteamisnotjoiningin,theyalsoslideback downtothebottom,regardlessofwhetherornottheywould haveclearedthehurdleotherwise.playthenrotatestothe nextteam.thefirstteamtoclearallofthehurdleswins,butit isagoodideatoletalltheteamsplayouttotheendsothat

23 22 TheAural OralApproaches everystudentgetsachancetopracticeeveryword.toadd suspensetotheactivity,havethestudentsthrowthedie behindablindwhereonlytheteachercanseeit.inthisway theycannottellwhattheyhavethrownpriortoworkingtheir wayupahurdle. 掷 选词 掷 谁赢 Roll a Word Makeavocabularydiethatshowssix vocabularywordsthatwillsubstituteintothetargetsentence pattern.placeamatchingsixvocabularywordsorpictureson thefloor.dividetheclassintotwoteams.havethefirst studentononeteamrollthedie.theentireclasschantsthe wordrolledwithinthetargetstructure,andtherollingteam picksupthematchingvocabularywordorpicturefromthe floor.thentheotherteamgetsachancetoroll.theclass againchorallyinsertstherolledwordintothetargetsentence patternandtheteampicksupthematchingword,ifit remains.theturnthengoesbacktothefirstteam.onceall thewordsorpictureshavebeenpickedup,awinningteamis determinedaccordingtowhichonecollectedthemostwords. Museum Makeavocabularydieshowingsixwordsthat willsubstituteintothetargetpattern.writethesamesix wordsdownthecenterofthewhiteboard.separatetheclass intotwoteams.writeoneteam snameaboveandtotheleft ofthelistofvocabularywordsandtheotherteam sname aboveandtotherightofit.theobjectiveisfortheteamsto collectallsixwordsfortheir museum. Givethefirststudent inoneteamthedieandhavehimorherrollit.theentire teamchantsoutthetargetpattern,insertingthewordrolled intothesubstitutionslot,andthespaceontheboardnextto thatitemundertheteam snameismarkedwithanx.then theotherteamgetsachancetoroll.playalternatesbackand forthwiththeplayerstryingtorollanyofthewordstheir teamhasnotyetrolled.thewinnersarethefirstteamto successfullyrollallsixwords,thuscompletingthecollection intheirmuseum.

24 23 TheAural OralApproaches Figure3:Museum - 掷 - 掷 抛 DiebyDie Makeadieshowingfivewordsthatwill substituteintothetargetpattern.thesixthsideofthedie shouldshowadeadlyanimalsuchasacobraoratiger. Arrangethestudentsinacircle.Explainthatthedeadly animalwillattackthechildreniftheyrollit.giveachildthe dieandhavethemrollit.iftheyrollthekilleranimal,they mustfeignbeingattackedbyitandfalltothefloordead.if, however,asubstitutionvocabularywordisrolled,all living childrenchantthetargetstructureinsertingthewordintothe appropriateslot.continuequicklyaroundthecirclehaving eachchildrollthedie.thenstartasecondroundandathird andsoon.continueplayuntilmostofthestudentsaredead onthefloor.thoseremainingaredeclaredthechampions. ShoeDice Preparetwoidenticalvocabularydice.Go aroundtheroomassigningeachstudentoneofthesix vocabularywordsshownonthedice.handbothdicetothe firstplayer.theplayerthrowsthediceoneatatime.oneach throw,theclasschantsthethrownwordwithinthetarget sentencepattern.oncebothdicehavebeenthrown,anychild whowasassignedtooneofthevocabularywordsshowing mustremoveoneoftheirshoesandtossitintothecenterof

25 24 TheAural OralApproaches theroom.playcontinuesasotherplayersthrowthedice.any timeachild swordisthrown,theymustthrowanothershoe intothecenteroftheroomiftheyhaveanyleft.if,however,a matchingpairofwordsisthrownbyastudent,allofthe childrenassignedtothatwordaregivenboththeirshoes back.(itisalwaysfuntotrytogivestudentsshoesthatclearly arenottheirs.)aftereachstudenthashadaturnthrowingthe dice,anyonewhohasboththeirshoesonisawinner.(note thatinsomecultures,studentsareveryreluctanttogiveup theirshoes.ifthiswillcauseaproblem,dotheactivityby havingstudentstossinanytwopersonalpossessionsthat theywillbeabletoidentifylater.) 连环 练 动 ChainDrillActivities Unlikechoraldrills,chaindrillsrequirestudentsto respondindividuallyinturn takingfashion.forthisreasonit isbettertodochaindrillactivitiesafterstudentshavehad somepracticethroughlow stresschoraldrills.thatsaid, however,chaindrillsprovideanexcellentopportunityforthe teachertoverifythateachchildisproducingthetarget languagecorrectly.someoftheactivitiesthatfolloware designedforwhole classchaindrillswhileothersarebetter forengagingstudentsinmotivatingsmallgroupchaindrill practice. 记忆 龙 MemoryChain Havethestudentssitinacircle.Askone childaquestion.thatstudentrespondsthenasksthenext studentinthecirclethesamequestion.thatchildshould respond,repeatingthefirststudent sanswerandadding another.thethirdchildmustrespondbyrepeatingthefirst twoandaddingathirdandsoon.playcontinuesaroundthe circletoseehowmanyitemsthechildrencanremember.ifa studentmakesamistake,theyareoutfortherestofthe round.

26 25 TheAural OralApproaches 弹传递 宾 戏 TimeBomb Havethechildrensitinacircleonthefloor. Askonechildaquestion.Thestudentanswersthenasksthe samequestiontothestudenttohisorherright.thatstudent answersandsoonaroundthecircle.whenthequestionand answergetsabouthalfwayaroundthecircle,thestudentwho answeredfirsthandsanobjectrepresentingatimebombto thechildtohisorherright.(instructionsformakinga realisticlookingbombareincludedintheunitentitled ManagingMaterials.)Thestudentswillbeabletopassthe bombfasterthantheycanaskandanswer.whenthebomb catchesuptoastudentwhoisintheprocessofspeaking,it explodes,knockingthatstudentoutofthegame.play continueswiththeremainingplayers.playuntilonlyafew studentsremainandrewardthem. Bingo Eachstudentisgivenauniquebingocardwiththe cellsshowingtargetsubstitutionvocabularywordsor pictures.(atemplateforabingocardisattachedasappendix Bofthisunit.Adownloadableversionisavailableat makingvocabularybingocardsareincludedintheuniton ManagingMaterials.)Eachcolumnonthecardisidentifiedat thetopbyoneofthelettersofthewordbingo.thegameis playedbyhavingstudentstaketurnscallingoutoneofthe letters,theninsertingoneofthesubstitutionvocabulary wordswithinthetargetstructure.forexample,iftheclassis playingagameofdomesticanimalsbingowiththestructurei haveapet(animal),typicalcallsmightbe N Ihaveapetcat, B Ihaveapetfish, or O Ihaveapetpig. Itisalsopossible tointensifypracticebyhavingtheentireclasschorallychant thesentencetheplayerhasjustcalled. S1:O Ihaveapetcat. C:Ihaveapetcat. S2:G Ihaveapetpig. C:Ihaveapetpig.

27 26 TheAural OralApproaches S3:I Ihaveapetfish. (andsoon) Anytimeastudentfindstheiteminsertedintothetarget structureinthecolumnidentified,theyplaceamarkeronit. Theobjectofthegameistomarkfivesquaresinarow horizontally,vertically,ordiagonally.(seeseveralpossible winningrowsofsquaresinfigures4 6.)Anytimeastudent completesawinningrow,theycallout bingo! Afterthe teacherverifiesthewinner smarks,allthestudentsclear theirmarkers;andanewgamebegins. Thefollowingfewactivitiesuseplayingcardsthathave beenadaptedtoshowsubstitutionvocabularywords.with suchvocabularyplayingcards,itiseasytoadaptalmostany commoncardgameforuseinsmallgrouplanguage teaching chaindrills.thesesmallgroupsofjustfourorfivestudents provideeachchildwithnumerousopportunitiesforturntakinglanguagepracticeandtheobjectivesofthecardgames givechildrenmotivationtoengageinsuchintensivechain drills.theteachershouldmoveabouttheclassroomand spendafewminuteslisteningtothestructuresbeing producedbyeachchildineachgrouptoensurethatthe childrenaresayingthetargetstructurescorrectly.becauseit isdifficultforateachertomonitornumerousgroupsatonce, itissometimesbeneficialtoaddaruletothegamebeing playedthatprovidesforsomesortofpunishment(e.g.,e.g., losingacardordrawingapenaltycard,dependingonthe objectivesofthegame)ifastudentdoesnotproducethe targetstructurecorrectly.thiswillturneveryplayerinevery groupintoa teacher monitoringtheircompetitorsfor accuracyinlanguageproduction. Telepathy Havethestudentsformsmallgroups.Tellthe childrenwhatvocabularyitemsareonthecardsandlistthem onthewhiteboard.giveeachgroupadeckofcards.each

28 27 TheAural OralApproaches groupshufflestheirdeckanddealsthemoutuntiltheyare gone.studentsarenotallowedtolookattheirowncardsand shouldarrangetheminaface downpileinfrontof themselves.thenthefirststudenttoplayputsahandonthe topcardofhisorherpileandannounceswhatvocabulary wordheorshethinksiswrittenonthecardbyinsertingit intothetargetsentencepattern.heorshethenturnsthecard faceupintothecenteroftheplayingarea.anytimeastudent correctlyguesseswhathisorhercardwillbe,thechild collectsallthecardsdiscardedsincethelastcorrectguess. Afterallofthestudentshaveexhaustedtheirpiles,thecards claimedbycorrectguessesarecountedtodeterminea winner. I vegotit Thisisaverysimplecardgamethatcanbe playedwithevenveryyoungstudentsaslongastheycan readthewordsonthecards.(alternatively,picturecardscan beusedsonoreadingisrequired.)thisgamecanalsobe playedwithlargergroupsofuptotenifdesired.giveeach groupadeckofvocabularycards.thecardsareshuffledand dealtoutuntilallaregone.thefirstplayerstartsplayby tossinginanycardfromhisorherhandandusingtheshown vocabularywordinatargetstructure.anyotherstudentwho hasamatchingvocabularycardthenpipesup,sayingthe wordinthestructureandtossinghisorhercardinaswell.if aplayerhastwoormoreofthatcard,heorshecantossthem allin,repeatingthestructureandwordanappropriate numberoftimes.thenthenextplayerinthecirclestarts anotherround.thiscontinuesuntilsomeonehasgottenridof allhisorhercards.thatstudent(orstudents,inthefrequent caseofties)wins. FindFour Thisgameisplayedsimilarlytothepopular cardgamegofish.separatetheclassintogroupsoffouror five.giveeachgroupadeckandhavethemdealoutfivecards toeachplayer.thefirstplayershowsacardfromhisorher

29 28 TheAural OralApproaches hand,saysthevocabularywordonitwithinatargetpattern, thenidentifiesanotherstudentheorshethinksmayhavea matchingcard.ifthatstudenthasamatch,heorshemust surrenderit,insertingthewordintothetargetstructure,and theplayingstudentgetsanotherturn.if,however,thecalled studentdoesnothaveamatch,theplayerisrejectedand drawsoneofthecardsleftoverfromthedeal.hisorherturn thenends,andthenextstudentplays.playersmusttryto rememberwhatcardsotherstudentshave,sowhenitistheir turn,theyknowwhotoaskforwhatcards.anytimeastudent collectsallfourofacertaincard,theyareshown.onceallthe leftovercardshavebeentakenup,aplayer sturnsimplyends thefirsttimetheyfailtomakeamatch.thewinneristhe playerthatmakesthemostsetsoffourcards.inmanycases, youcanincorporateaquestionandanswerstructureintothis game.forexample,usingadeckofdomesticanimalscards, theplayingstudentshowsacardthatreads cat andsays, I haveapetcat.billy,doyouhaveapetcat? IfBillyhasacat card,hemustsay, Yes,Ido, andsurrenderit.ifnot,hesays, No,Idon t. Snap Putthestudentsinsmallgroups.Giveeachgroupa setofvocabularycards,whicharedealtoutuntiltheyare gone.studentsarenotallowedtolookattheirowncards; theyjustplacetheminaneatstackonthetableinfrontof themselves,creatingdrawstacks.thefirstplayerturnsover thetopcardfromhisorherdrawstackandusesthe vocabularyitemshownwithinthetargetstructure.thenthe nextstudentdoesthesameandsoon.onsubsequentrounds, playersturnoveranothercardandlayitdirectlyontopofthe otherdiscards.anytimetwodiscardpilesendupshowingthe samevocabularyword(seefigure7),alltheplayers,except theonewhojustturnedthecardcreatingthematch,raceto shoutout snap! Thefirsttosayitcollectsallthecardsin thosetwopilesandplacesthembackunderhisorherdraw

30 29 TheAural OralApproaches stack.theobjectofthegameistocollectasmanycardsas possible. Figure4:Snap! Conclusions AlthoughtheAural OralApproaches,theAudio LingualMethod(ALM),andtheSituationalApproachhave beenlargelyrejectedbysomesecondlanguageacquisition researchers,manyoftheirdisadvantagescanbeavoided leavingusabletousetheiradvantageousfeaturesfor effectiveteachingthatiscompatiblewithmorecontemporary methods.inthisunit,weexploredthetheoreticaland historicalbackgroundoftheaural OralApproaches, describedthecharacteristicsofeach,discussedthe advantagesanddisadvantagesofeach,anddiscoveredhow manyoftheirdisadvantagescanbeavoided.wethencovered avarietyofapplications,orteachingtechniques,thatfacilitate thetypesofdrillsthatarecharacteristicoftheaural Oral Approaches. BothALMandtheSituationalApproachwerereactionsto theineffectivenessofthegrammartranslationapproach andthereadingapproachinenablingstudentstoorally

31 30 TheAural OralApproaches communicateintheirsecondlanguage.whilealmwas heavilyinfluencedbythescienceofbehaviorismand assumedstudentsmustdevelop speakinghabits through repetitiveoralpractice,thesituationalapproacharosefrom thenewfieldofpragmatics,whichemphasizedthefactthat certainlanguagestructurescanhavequitedifferentmeanings dependinguponthecontext,orsituation,inwhichtheyare used.bothaural Oralapproachesemphasizetheteachingof listeningandspeakinganddelaytheteachingofreadingand writing.inbothapproaches,theinputstudentsreceiveis carefullycontrolledandgrammaticalstructuresare sequencedfromsimpletomorecomplex.inboth,therulesof grammararelearnedinductively,notthroughovert explanation(deductively).whilebothapproachesmayuse single slotsubstitutionanddouble slotsubstitutionin choraldrillsorchaindrills,traditionalalmallowsthe languagetobemanipulatedwithoutregardtocontextforthe meresakeofpractice,whilethesituationalapproachonly allowspracticeoflanguagethatwouldactuallybeusedin certaincommunicativesituations.whilealmdiscouragesthe useofthemothertongueintheclassroom,theformal SituationalApproachstrictlyforbidsit. BothSituationalApproacheshavecertainadvantages. Neitherrequiresteacherstohavenative likefluency.bothare fairlyeasytouse,eveninlargeclasses,butthesituational Approachplacesaslightlygreaterdemandonteachersto establishsuitablesituationsforthelanguagebeingpracticed whilealmdoesnot.becausetheaural OralApproaches delaytheteachingofliteracyskills,teachersandstudentsare allowedtofocusonjusttwoofthefourprimarylanguage skills.someargue,however,thatthisisactuallydetrimental, eventoauralandoraldevelopment. Theapproachesalsohaveotherdisadvantages.For example,manyalmorsituationalapproachstudents

32 31 TheAural OralApproaches struggletofluentlyusecertainstructureswhentheyare appropriateinsituationsotherthanthosethatwereusedfor practiceofthestructureintheclassroom.also,some classroommanagementissuesmayoccurwhenstudentsonly pretendtorespondorallyduringchoraldrillsorloseinterest aftertheirturninlongchaindrillsthatprogressthroughthe classinapredictablepattern.also,someteachersfallintothe trapofalwaysaskingthetargetquestionswhilestudents respond,robbingstudentsofthechancetopracticeproducing thequestionsaswellastheresponses.finally,becausethese approachesdiscourageanyuseofthemothertongue, teachersmayhavedifficultyexplainingmoreabstract vocabulary,andbeginningstudentsmayhavenowaytoask forclarificationbecausetheylackthenecessaryproficiencyin thetargetlanguagetodoso. Mostofthesedisadvantagescanbeovercome.For example,evenmodernfour skillsapproachesallowfor certainlessonphasestofocusonparticularskills,sothe methodsoftheaural OralApproachescanstillbeutilizedin lessonphasesthatfocusonlisteningandspeakingpracticeto lessonphasesthatfocusonlisteningandspeakingpractice. Tohelpstudentsbeabletousetargetstructuresinavariety ofsituations,teachersshouldconsciouslydemonstratea varietyofsituationsinwhicheachtargetstructurecouldbe usedaswellasteachvariationsoftargetquestionsand responsesthatmaybeusefulindifferingsituations.to overcomethedifficultiesofnotbeingabletousethemother tongue,asmallamountoftimecouldbesetasidebeforeand aftereachlessoninwhichteacherscanexplaintarget structuresandvocabularyandstudentscanaskfor clarificationintheirnativelanguage.thebulkoftheclass, then,wouldbeconductedonlyinthetargetlanguage. Classroommanagementconcernscanbeaddressedby breakingstudentsintosmallerpracticegroups,makingthe

33 32 TheAural OralApproaches turn takingofchaindrillsrandomratherthanpredictable, andcallingonstudentswhohavealreadyrespondedina chaindrilltoreportwhatresponsewasgivenbyoneormore oftheirclassmates. Despitebeingpedagogicallytraditional,variationsonthe Aural OralApproachesstillhaveaneffectiveroletoplayin modernsecondlanguageteachingpractice,especiallyin regionswherethereisashortageoffullybilinguallanguage teachers. Notes 1) Aural OralApproaches( 听说法 ): 外语或第二语言教学方法, 听说领先 大量操练 反对课堂使用母语, 以结构主义语言学和行为主义心理学为基础, 不要求教师有本族语般的流利程度 2) Behaviorism( 行为主义 ): 心理学理论认为, 人和动物的行为只能且必须从生理过程来研究, 由此产生的学习理论解释了人怎么样受外部 事件的刺激产生行为变化 ( 反应 ), 而不需要任何 意向 或其他心理活动 3) operantconditioning( 操作性条件反射 ): 学习理论, 由美国心理学家斯金纳提出, 是行为主义心理学的重要方面 生物发出动作称为操作 结果称心会重复一次, 称为操作受到强化 无结果 ( 不强化 ) 或结 果不称心, 操作重复的机会就会减少 是对古典性条件反射的补充 4) SituationalApproach( 情景法 ): 起源于新领域语用学, 强调一种语言结构可能因情景 / 语境不同而产生不同含义, 严格禁止使用母语 5) pragmatics( 语用学 ): 研究语言在交际中的运用, 特别是句子及其语境之间的关系, 包括 : 话语的理解与运用对现实世界的认识间的关系, 说话者如何使用和理解言语行为, 句子结构如何

34 33 TheAural OralApproaches 受说话者和听话者间的关系的影响 References Celce Murcia,M.(1991).Languageteachingapproaches:An overview.inm.celce Murcia(ed.)TeachingEnglishasaSecondor ForeignLanguage,secondedition.(pp.3 10)Boston:Heinle& Heinle. Finegan,E.(2004).Language:It sstructureanduse,fourthedition. Boston:ThomsonWadsworth. Prabhu,N.S.(1987).SecondLanguagePedagogy.NewYork, Toronto:OxfordUniversityPress. Prator,C.H.(1991).Cornerstonesofmethodandnamesforthe profession.inm.celce Murcia(ed.)TeachingEnglishasaSecond orforeignlanguage,secondedition.(pp.3 10)Boston:Heinle& Heinle.