A Tentative Study on Lexical Characteristics of China English

Transcription

1 A Tentative Study on Lexical Characteristics of China English ZHOU Ying Abstract With its global spread,english has gradually changing its role to serve the purpose of international communication. A new concept of Egnlishes has come into existence to refer to different English varieties in non-native speaking countries. China is not free from the influence of the global spread of English. The nativized form of English in Chinese cultural context, which is termed as China English, turns out to be inevitable and necessary to serve the purpose of international communication. After introducing the concept of China English, this paper focuses on the characteristics of China English at the lexical level. The author categorizes China English vocabulary into two parts, that is borrowed words and nativized expressions, with a closer look respectively, then analyzes the semantic changes of these words used in Chinese context, and in the last part discusses some problems concerning China English vocabulary. Keywords borrowed, China English, Englishes, lexical characteristics, nativzed I. INTRODUCTION WORLD ENGLISHES AND CHINA ENGLISH ITH it global spread, the English language today is no W longer limited to British or American English, but has gradually changing its role to serve the purpose of international communication. The traditional concept of English is facing an unprecedented challenge. Many new names were given to it such as an international language, a global language and a lingua franca[1], which established the status of English in world communication. The word English also gained its plural form and the last twenty years or so have seen a rapid growth of interest in the study of World Englishes, a new linguistic theory focusing on the English varieties used in different parts of the world, especially in non-native speaking countries. The most influential theoretical model the Three Concentric Circles of English, best describes the global situation of the English languages. The Inner Circle covers the least population and English in its countries, as the mother tongue, is obtained by natural acquisition and functions in allround fields. The Outer Circle includes the non-native varieties of English used as a second language. The third and the largest circle, the Extending Circle, covers the regions where English is used as a foreign language[2]. English in the Inner Circle is hardly influenced by other languages and the Ying Zhou is with Shanghai University of Enginneering Science, Shanghai, CO CHINA (phone: ; fax: *308; zhyhere@126.com). culture there is western style, while English in the Outer Circle is greatly influenced by local languages and bears non-western cultures. The Extending Circle covers a large part of the world with various cultural backgrounds. It is also where the western culture meets the eastern culture. The development of English in non-native speaking countries has inevitably attached local features to the language, due to its use in different cultural settings. The localized or nativized forms of English have become essential parts of those countries in their communication with the outside world. China is not free from the influence of the global spread of English. The nativized form of English in Chinese cultural context, which is termed as China English, turns out to be inevitable and necessary[3]. China English serves as a bridge between China and the rest of the world and promote the international exchange; it enriches the ways of expression of the English language and contributes to the development of English as an international language. Studying the proper use of China English helps the Chinese get better understood by the rest of the world. Since words are the most active part and the basic elements of a language and they best reflect the culture of the people who use it, the most salient characteristics of China English present in its lexis. II. LEXICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CHINA ENGLISH The lexical feature of China English refers to the vocabulary expressing things unique to China and reflecting the Chinese way of thinking. According to Li Wenzhong, the vocabulary of China English contains two parts: one is Chinese borrowings or loan words already absorbed into English dictionaries home and abroad and widely used in English speaking countries, and the other is those that haven t been collected in English dictionaries but used in international publicity, tourism and foreign affairs, expressing the uniqueness of Chinese nation and culture[4]. A. Borrowed Words Intercultural communication leads to the blend of language and culture. Linguistic borrowing embodies the main characteristics of the intercultural blend. Borrowing is a natural process of language change whereby one language adds new words to its own lexis by copying those words from another language[5]. The words borrowed are called loan words or borrowings. One of the initial reasons for borrowing is when one language has semantic gaps in its lexis and needs to borrow a term to express the necessary idea or concept[5]. Therefore, borrowing is a result of language contact and thus a 117

2 result of culture contact. According to studies of sociolinguists, frequently borrowed are brand names, place names, greetings, sayings and slang expressions. The types of borrowed words tend to be related to the culture behind the donor language, because the more culturally bound an item, the less likely the possibility of a ready synonym in the other language. The Chinese borrowings in English can be traced back to the 17th century. With the opening of the Silk Road, words expressing things unique to China made their way into English vocabulary mainly through transliteration and loan translation. Garland Cannon estimated that Chinese borrowings collected in the English standard dictionaries and other books had amounted to no less than 979 by the middle of 1970s[6]. The main feature of those Chinese borrowings is their uniqueness and irreplaceability. Unlike the French borrowings, which offer a large number of synonyms to English vocabulary and are sometimes complained as the burden of English, Chinese borrowings are irreplaceable because of their lack of English equivalences. 1. Ways of borrowing Fantini recognizes two levels of borrowing pure borrowing, where the word retains all its native features, and adjusted borrowing, where the word adapts to the structural criteria of the host language[5]. Generally speaking, Chinese borrowings in English consist of three parts in ways of transliteration (which approximates to the idea of pure borrowing), loan translation and the combination of both (which can be regarded as equal to adjusted borrowing). Transliteration Transliterated words are phonetically similar to the donor language form and the borrowing language form. They are used in the borrowing language with the closest possible sounds and the closest possible meanings to the original words. Transliteration is the most commonly used method to translate proper nouns especially geographical names and people s names. It is also the easiest and the best way to bridge lexical gaps in intercultural communication. Here are some examples of Chinese borrowings in English,which are basically from Putonghua and Cantonese dialect. (1)About history and culture xiucai 秀才 yamen 衙门 kowtow 叩, 磕头 (2)About geomancy and philosophy fengshui 风水 yin and yang 阴阳 (3) About recreation and sports erhu 二胡 wushu 武术 tai chi 太极拳 mahjong 麻将 (4) About food, drink and clothing baozi 包子 ketchup 番茄酱 chowmein 炒面 doufu/tofu 豆腐 Cheongsam/Qipao 旗袍 (5) About botany litchi 荔枝 ginseng 人参 longan 龙眼 (6) About measurement jin 斤 yuan 元 Loan translation Loan translation is defined by Bloomfield as a form of borrowing from one language to another whereby the semantic components of a given term are literally translated into their equivalents in the borrowing language[5]. In this case, a foreign concept is borrowed and a native term used to express it. The native word has no phonological similarities to the foreign word. Cannon collected 49 Chinese loan translations in his article Chinese Borrowings in English in the 1980s[7]. Examples: (1)About traditional literature Four Books 四书 Five Classics 五经 Analects of Confucius 论语 (2) About politics Great Leap Forward 大跃进 Long March 长征 National People s Congress (NPC) 全国人大 (3) About food and cuisine lotus seeds 莲子 bird s nest 燕窝 drunken shrimp 醉虾 (4) About history Warring States 战国 Son of Heaven 天子 dragon robes 龙袍 (5) Others paper tiger 纸老虎 feudal superstition 封建迷信 lose face 丢脸 work point 工分 Combination of transliteration and loan translation The combined way of transliteration and load translation incorporates the linguistic elements of both languages. This kind of borrowing has greatly enriched the English expressions. Examples: teacake 茶点 Beijing opera 京剧 Confucianism 孔子 / 儒家学说 Taoism 道家学说 Maoist 毛泽东思想追随者 2. Channels of Borrowing Katamba distinguishes between direct and indirect borrowing[5]. Indirect borrowing is when language B receives a loan word from language A by way of languages C, D, E, 118

3 etc. Direct borrowing occurs when the borrowing is transferred directly from language A to language B. Words borrowed directly undergo less phonological change from one transliteration than from the multiple transliterations in indirect borrowing. Indirect borrowing At the early stage, Chinese borrowings didn t come into English directly from Chinese, but through the third language or even more languages. Though the English and Chinese languages both have a long history, they seldom had the chance of coming into contact with each other until the 18th century due to far geographical location and less developed traffic facilities. The earliest Chinese borrowing into English might be the Chinese specialty----silk[8]. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word first appeared in English in 888 by way of the Latin word sericus, which was derived from Greek. It traveled a long way along the Silk Road from Chang an (in Tang dynasty) through the Takla Makan Desert, over the Pamirs, across the Mediterranean Sea, via Greece and finally to Britain. The complicated movement almost deprived it of its native feature of Chinese. Another similar example is tea, which is borrowed from Fujian dialect through Dutch. Besides other foreign languages, Pidgin English is also found as a transmitter[7]. Chinese Pidgin English took shape in the 18th century after the British established their first trading post in Guangzhou in With a limited vocabulary, deviant grammar and phonology, it was a mixed language as a result of the need for communication between English-speaking traders and the local Chinese. It declined in the 19th century and now is virtually dead, but some words survived and were absorbed in the English vocabulary, such as typhoon ( 台风 ),joss( 菩萨, 神像 ), chopsticks( 筷子 ),chow chow ( 酱菜 ),etc. Direct borrowing Two sources of direct borrowing are Putonghua (the standard spoken form of modern Chinese) and some dialects in southeast coastal cities. Words deriving from the former usually adopt pinyin (the Chinese phonetic transcription) or once used Wade-Giles system[ The Wade-Giles romanization system for the Chinese language was produced by two British scholars Thomas Wade and Herbert Allen Giles in the 19th and 20th centuries and ever used in China before pinyin was invented as the official system for putonghua in ] as their spellings, for example, renminbi or RMB ( 人民币 ), m aotai ( 茅台酒 ),Kuomintang( 国民党 ), kungfu ( 功夫 ), etc. Owing to frequent business contact with foreigners on China s southeast ports and Hong Kong as the British colony for a long time, Cantonese and Fujian dialect also lent themselves to English vocabulary. Those from Cantonese are words such as dimsum ( 点心 ), yamsha ( 饮茶 ), wonton ( 云吞 ), chop suey ( 杂碎 ), etc. and from Fujian dialect are usually words concerning tea, such as congou ( 功夫茶 )and oolong ( 乌龙茶 ). Chinese borrowing is mainly used when there is no suitable English equivalent and is inevitable in conveying what is unique in China. It reflects the Chinese culture and social changes. Take fuyun( 浮云 ) as an example from the Confucius Institution Online. It literally means drifting clouds. According to the textual research, fuyun reflects Confucius' attitude toward wealth, for he is known to have said: 不义而富且贵, 于我如浮云, m eaning that -gotten ill gains are nothing but drifting clouds to him. Nowadays, the popular expression of Everything is fuyun reflects people's disappointment and disillusionment at the uncertainty of life and their current circumstances, when facing increasing pressure of life and work. In some cases, Chinese borrowing is used as a substitution for the English equivalent to emphasize the connotative meaning of the Chinese word. For example, hukou somewhat means registered residence in English. In A Chinese-English Dictionary by Wei Dongya, hukou bu ( 户口簿 )is translated as residence booklet. However, in the Chinese context, hukou bu means more than just a certification of your permanent residence. It means many social benefits such as medical service, house purchase subsidy, advantages in children s education and the like. Therefore, the transliteration hukou can better express what it really is. B. Nativized Expressions As well as the borrowings that have already entered the English vocabulary, some creative uses of English constitute the indispensable part of the vocabulary of China English. The nativized expressions are not included in the standard English dictionaries but can be understood through explanation. Expressions for things and ideas unique to China should be created by people who best understand the culture. China is one of the four great ancient civilizations with rich and splendid history and culture. There are many special things and concepts in Chinese culture that have never been described in English. That needs the efforts of Chinese people to make them known to the world. What s more, China is developing at an unprecedented speed; new things and concepts are springing up like mushrooms. Since international exchanges won t cease for a day, it s impossible to wait for being introduced to the outside world; instead, the Chinese should take the initiative to develop new China English words. Here are some examples generally accepted and used in media at home and abroad: (1)About custom the Spring Festival the Lantern Festival gift money (2)About traditional food spring roll rice noodles moon cake (3)About art and science shadow plays Chinese herbal medicine Heavenly Stems Earthly Branches (4)About thoughts and ideas the way of the mean three cardinal guides five constant virtues 春节元宵节压岁钱 春卷米粉月饼 皮影戏中草药天干地支 中庸之道三纲五常 119

4 (6) About politics one China policy 一个中国政策 three represents 三个代表 three emphases education 三讲教育 (7) About reform and opening up Four Modernizations 四化 special economic zone 经济特区 township enterprises 乡镇企业 self-employed economy 个体经济 expanding domestic demand 扩大内需 (8) About social phenomena and government projects laid-off workers 下岗职工 migrant workers 民工 re-employment project 再就业工程 anti-poverty project 扶贫工程 C. Coined words With the changing attitude of Chinese people to crosscultural communication and open-minded translation view, some coined words have appeared as new forms of China English in recent years. For instance, many buzzwords have popped up in Chinese recording development of the society and changes of people s way of life, among which geili( 给力 ) is an typical example. Originated from Fujian dialect, it has become popular since two years ago, used to describe something cool or supportive. After the wide spread of the expression among Chinese netizens and across China, its English version was soon created--gelivable. Combining the form of pinyin and the English word formation, it keeps the real meaning in Chinese context best and conforms to the English rules, and now widely accepted by Chinese and overseas media. Another example is the expression 不折腾 in President Hujintao s speech on the 30 th Anniversary of Reform and Opening up. Several English versions like don't get sidetracked, don't sway back and forth, no major changes, avoid futile actions, were used by Chinese and overseas media. Then, it was transliterated as bu zheteng, keeping the original form of pinyin, by the press conference of the State Council. However, a coined phrase no Z-turn by brainstorming of Chinese netizens seemed to be more creative. Not only does it keep a similarity in pronunciation between Chinese and English, but it also conveys the connotation of the Chinese expression vividly. D. Semantic Changes The meanings of words usually don t remain unchanged whether in a long period of time or in different contexts they are used. The changes can result in semantic broadening or narrowing, amelioration or pejoration. These can first be found in many borrowed words. The word shanghai with the initial in small letter is used as a verb that means to trick or force somebody into doing something. It s from the former practice of kidnapping men for compulsory service on a ship in Shanghai in the days of foreign invasion. Another word cumshaw borrowed from Fujian dialect with its original meaning thanks gradually shifted its meaning to a tip or gratuity. And Chinese puzzle, which originally refers to a Chinese intelligent game, now is generalized to a wider range of things very difficult and intricate. Still some have already been assimilated by English without any exotic trace and developed their own derivatives or compounds, which have largely enhanced their expression capacity. Similarly, some original English words have undergone semantic regeneration when used in the Chinese context. In other words, the regeneration process of English in a new cultural environment will bring about not only new words but also new meanings of the original words. For example, intellectuals ( 知识分子 ) in C hina generally includes teachers, students, and such people as doctors, engineers, journalists---- those who have relatively high education and usually take brainwork as their occupation. In the U.S. and Europe, however, intellectuals only refer to people of high academic status such as professors[9]. So the term covers a much smaller range of people. Another example is liberalism( 自由主义 ), w hich is originally a political theory favoring the freedom and autonomy of individuals and obviously positive in the United States, while in China it s totally derogatory because of its association with selfishness and egoism. All these are attributed to the two different cultural contexts the languages used. III. PROBLEMS CONCERNING CHINA ENGLISH VOCABULARY Since reform and opening to the outside world, there has been a dramatic increase in the number of China English words. A Concise Chinese-English Dictionary of Chinese Proper Names and Terms with Zhang Zhengjiu & Yuan Xianjun as chief editors published in 1994 has collected 30,000 words[10]. For lack of theoretical studies and guidance norms in China English words, the use of them is quite confusing at present. For example, 饺子 has different versions in different Chinese-English dictionaries. It is rendered as dumpling (with meat and vegetable) in Modern Chinese English Dictionary (published by Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press in 1988) and Chinese English Dictionary (published by Shanghai Jiaotong University Press in 1997), but the Chinese English Dictionary (published by Chinese Dictionary Press in 1997) equates the traditional Chinese food to the Italian ravioli. Since the Italian borrowing ravioli can be accepted by English, why not jiaozi? Besides, 风水 is translated as the location of a house or tomb, supposed to have influence on the fortune of a family; geomantic omen [11]. However, the Oxford Dictionary of New Words (1997) simply use feng shui. Another case in point is 太极拳. It is almost unexceptionally rendered as shadow boxing in China. But as this translation has nothing to do with the Chinese 太极拳, it seem s hard to be accepted by B ritish and American people. In contrast, the recently published dictionaries in England and America have included it as tai chi [10]. We can see that efforts still need to be made in solving the above problem. First, we should study carefully the word-formation of English and find the best way to express Chinese culturebound words so as to realize the value of China English. 120

5 Chinese scholars have never ceased to explore the ways of Chinese-English translation to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. As for Chinese culture-loaded words, Chinese Scholars developed several translation methods: translating literally to keep the original image, adopting similar expressions in English, solely keeping the meaning and translating with annotation. Annotation is applied to the translation of unique terms especially formed in the Chinese history, like the name of a person, place, time, customs, classics, allusion, etc. Besides, for things and concepts that belong to only one nation, there is a general consensus in most cases to follow the principle of transliteration, especially for proper names of Chinese places, people, traditional food, specialties, philosophy concepts, etc. Second, we should strengthen the management of the compilation of Chinese-English dictionaries. On one hand, the translation of Chinese proper names, Chinese-colored words and expressions should be given standardized versions in specialized dictionaries; on the other hand, greater emphasis should be attached on the lexicography of Chinese-English dictionaries. Viewing from the pragmatic aspect of translation, we should not only explain some words peculiar to China but also give them official terms through proper ways of translation. For example, 兵马俑 is translated as wood or clay figures of warriors and horses buried with the dead [12]. It feels more like explanation than translation. Actually we can pick up in publications both at home and abroad its translated versions like terra cotta army or terra cotta soldiers and horses. Meanwhile, we should also explore the use of cultural notes in bilingual dictionaries, which will contribute much to understanding of China English, for a cultural-based dictionary will lay a foundation for the development of China English, or to be more exact, for the standardization of China English. REFERENCES [1] Todd, L. & Hancock, I., International English Usage, Kent: Mackays of Chanham Ltd., [2] Kachru, B.B., The Sacred Cows of English, English Today, 1988,(16),pp.3-8. [3] Ge Chuangui, A Discussion of Problems concerning Translation from Chinese to English, Translation News, 1980,(2). [4] Li Wenzhong, China English and Chinglish, Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 1993,(4). [5] Lauren Asia Hall-Lew, English loan words in Mandarin Chinese, Standford University, 2002, viewed July , < [6] Gudykunst, W.B. & Kim, Y.Y., Communication with Strangers, New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.,1992. [7] Cannon, G., Chinese borrowings in English, American Speech, vol.63, no.1,1988,pp [8] Wang Rongpei, China English is Objective Existence, Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages, 1991,(1). [9] Deng Yanchang & Liu Runqing, Language and Culture--the Comparison of English and Chinese Languages and Cultures, Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, [10] Du Ruiqing &Jiang Yajun, China English in the Past 20 Years, Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 2001,(1). [11] Wu Guanghua, Chinese-English Dictionary, Shanghai: Shanghai Jiaotong University Press, [12] Wei Dongya, A Chinese-English Dictionary (Revised Version), Beijing: Foreign Language Education Press, [13] Chin-Chuan Cheng, Chinese Varieties of English, in Kachru, B.B, The Other Tongue: English Across Cultures, University of Illinois Press, Illinois, pp , [14] Ding Wangdao, A Continuing Climb, Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, [15] Kachru, B.B., The Other Tongue: English Across Cultures, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, [16] Pan Zhangxian, Linguistic and Cultural Identities in Chinese Varieties of English, Beijing: Peking University Press, IV. CONCLUSION China English results from the combination of Chinese culture and the English language. China English vocabulary provides a vivid picture of Chinese culture, which contributes to cross-cultural communication and enriches the English language. However, further systemization and standardization is still needed to improve our communicative abilities and achieve more intelligibility. Although China English is still in its infancy and there is a long way to go, it is generally accepted and has great significance in both cross-culture communication and linguistic study. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This study is supported by Shanghai s Special Research Fund of Selecting and Cultivating Excellent Young Teachers of Higher Education(No. Gjd10006). Sincere thanks also go to all the authors listed in the reference, which has provided enlightenment and supporting materials to this study. 121