Higher Education and Research in China

Transcription

1 Federal Department of Foreign Affairs Embassy of Switzerland in China Science, Education, and Health section Higher Education and Research in China 1/34

2 Contents 1. Aim and Objectives Higher Education in China Overview Higher Education System Entrance examinations and admission criteria Scholarship and loan system Study abroad Policy Major Changes in Recent Years Project 211 & Project Comparison between China and the West International Cooperation between China and Other Countries S & T Research in China Overview of the S & T system in China Structure National Programmes Key Technologies Research and Development Program Program Program Torch Program Spark Program Protection of Intellectual Property Rights Comparison between China and the West International Cooperation between China and Other Countries in S & T Sino Swiss Cooperation in Higher Education and Research Status Quo Opportunities for the Future...18 Appendices...19 Appendix I Project Universities...19 Appendix II Project Universities...24 Appendix III - Top 100 Chinese Universities Ranked By Achievements in Scientific Research...25 Appendix IV Fact sheet - National High-tech R&D Program (863 Program)...28 Appendix IV Fact sheet 973 Program...30 Appendix V - List of Chinese Research Institutes /34

3 Abstract 3/34

4 1. Aim and Objectives This report aims to support the Swiss S & T community on strategic planning in Sino-Swiss cooperation, by shining some light on higher education and research in China with the following contents: General knowledge on higher education and research in China Comparison of China and the West in Education and Research International cooperation between China and other countries in S & T To identify opportunities for Switzerland in developing higher education and research links with China 4/34

5 2. Higher Education in China 2.1. Overview Higher Education System 1 The higher education segment of the Chinese education system carries aspects both of the US and the UK systems with a stronger affiliation to the US system. Two- and three-year colleges which are also referred to as short-cycle colleges (in Chinese 专科院校 / 專科院校 or zhuānkēyuànxiào), typically awarding associate degrees (in Chinese 大专文凭 / 大專文憑 or dàzhuānwénping), exist next to typical four-year colleges and universities which offer academic as well as vocational courses leading to bachelor degrees (in Chinese 本科文凭 / 本科文凭 or běnkē wénping) or higher. Master s degrees and PhDs are offered by universities and research institutions which are accredited by the State Council (MoE 2005). 2 Source: Higher Education in China in the light of massification and demographic change, Zhu, Higher Education in China in the light of massification and demographic change, Zhu, /34

6 Most universities in China are run by either the central or local government. Privatization appears often in vocational training and adult education. Source: Finnish National Board of Education 2007 There were 1,867 universities and institutions of higher education in China in 2006, up from 1,041 in 2000, with a total student enrolment figure of 17.4m, up from the 2000 level of 5.6m. Engineering and management are the two most popular courses. The rapid rise in enrolment has been accompanied by a sharp rise in the student-teacher ratio. This stood at 16.2:1 in 2006, compared with 4.2:1 in 1978 at the beginning of the reform period. entrance is generally on a meritocratic basis and highly competitive a national university entrance examination ranks all students. Students with poor scores can end up studying unexpected subjects in remote institutions. China had 1.1m students enrolled in postgraduate courses in 2006 (up from 301,000 in 2000), and there were a record 134,000 students studying abroad, typically on postgraduate programmes in the US and other developed countries, massively up on the 39,000 who left the country to study in Students studying abroad often choose to find work overseas, but a range of incentives are in place to entice them back. A total of 42,000 such students returned to China in In addition, China is attracting a rising number of foreign students some 82,000 in 2006, according to the Ministry of Education. The bulk of these students are from other Asian countries such as South Korea and Japan. Medicine, agriculture and Chinese culture, history and language are the most popular courses. However, many of the courses followed by foreign students do not lead to full degrees: in 2006 only 4,782 degrees were conferred on foreign students. 3 Particular attention has been paid to improving systems in recent reforms. Many industrial multiversities and specialist colleges have been established, strengthening some incomplete subjects and establishing new specialties, e.g., automation, atomic energy, energy resources, oceanography, nuclear physics, computer science, polymer chemistry, polymer physics, radiochemistry, physical chemistry and biophysics. A project for creating 100 world class universities began in 1993, which has merged 708 schools of higher learning into 302 universities. Merging schools of higher learning has produced far-reaching reform of higher education management, optimizing of educational resources allocation, and further improving teaching quality and school standards. More than 30 universities have received help from a special national fund to support their attainment of world elite class. 3 Country Profile 2008, The Economist Intelligence Unit Limited /34

7 The contribution to China's economic construction and social development made by research in the higher education sector is becoming ever more evident. By strengthening cooperation among their production, teaching and research, schools of higher learning are speeding up the process in turning sci-tech research results into products, giving rise to many new and hi-tech enterprises and important innovations. Forty-three national university sci-tech parks have been started or approved, some of which have become important bases for commercializing research. The authorities approved more than 3400 research laboratories and institutes that belong to Chinese universities. There are nearly 500 State Key Research Programmes already running or being planed. There are about 150 State Key Labs and a further numbers of engineering centres are under construction. The participation of big investors in online education has made it a new hotspot for investment in the education industry. Students of remote and under-developed areas are the biggest beneficiaries of online education, but online universities offer students who failed university entrance examinations and working people the chance of lifelong education and learning. The Ministry of Education has approved 68 ordinary schools of higher learning and the Central Radio and TV to pilot modern distance education. By the end of 2003, these schools had established 2,027 off-campus learning centers around China, offering 140 majors in ten disciplines, and had a total enrollment of million. The gradual spread of broadband technology has also helped online education. The China Education and Research Network (CERNET), started in 1994, is now China's second largest Internet network, covering all major cities of China. The high-speed connection between it and the China Education Broadband Satellite Net, opened in 2000, established a "space to earth" transmission platform for modern distance education, and provided an all-round network supporting environment for distance education. Adult education is both dynamic and diverse. Schools of higher learning for adults include radio and TV, worker, farmer, correspondence and evening universities, management and education colleges; adult secondary schools include vocational, high and skills training schools; worker elementary and farmer elementary schools comprise the adult elementary sector Entrance examinations and admission criteria 4 In 1990, less than 4% of the year olds enrolled as students in higher education institutions compared to 22% in 2005 (MoE Age Group 2007). The total number of students in 2005 exceeded 23 million. National examinations to select students for higher education (and positions of leadership) were an important part of the Chinese culture. Traditionally, entrance to a higher education institution was considered prestigious. Although the examination system for admission to colleges and universities has undergone many changes since the Cultural Revolution, it remains the basis for recruiting academically able students. When higher education institutions were reopened in early 1970s, candidates for entrance examinations had to be senior-middle-school graduates or the equivalent, generally below twenty-six years of age. Work experience requirements were eliminated, but workers and staff members needed permission from their enterprises to take the examinations. Each provincial-level unit was assigned a quota of students to be admitted to key universities, a second quota of students for regular universities within that administrative division, and a third quota of students from other provinces, autonomous regions, and special municipalities who would be admitted to institutions operated at the provincial level. Provincial-level administrative units selected students with outstanding records to take the examinations. Additionally, preselection examinations were organized by the provinces, autonomous regions, and special municipalities for potential students (from three to five times the number of places allotted). These candidates were actively encouraged to 4 7/34

8 take the examination to ensure that a sufficient number of good applicants would be available. Cadres with at least two years of work experience were recruited for selected departments in a small number of universities on an experimental basis. Preferential admission treatment (in spite of lower test scores) was given to minority candidates, students from disadvantaged areas, and those who agreed in advance to work in less developed regions after graduation. The student enrollment and graduate assignment system also was changed to reflect more closely the personnel needs of modernization. By 1986 the state was responsible for drafting the enrollment plan, which took into account future personnel demands, the need to recruit students from outlying regions, and the needs of trades and professions with adverse working conditions. Moreover, a certain number of graduates to be trained for the People's Liberation Army were included in the state enrollment plan. In most cases, enrollment in higher education institutions at the employers' request was extended as a supplement to the state student enrollment plan. Employers were to pay a percentage of training fees, and students were to fulfill contractual obligations to the employers after graduation. The small number of students who attended colleges and universities at their own expense could be enrolled in addition to those in the state plan. Accompanying the changes in enrollment practices were reforms, adopted in 1986, in the faculty appointment system, which ended the "iron rice bowl" employment system and gave colleges and universities freedom to decide what departments, majors, and numbers of teachers they needed. Teachers in institutions of higher learning were hired on a renewable contract basis, usually for two to four years at a time. The teaching positions available on basis were teaching assistant, lecturer, associate professor, and professor. The system was tested in eight major universities in Beijing and Shanghai before it was instituted nationwide at the end of presidents headed groups in charge of appointing professors, lecturers, and teaching assistants according to their academic levels and teaching abilities, and a more rational wage system, geared to different job levels, was inaugurated. Universities and colleges with surplus professors and researchers were advised to grant them appropriate academic titles and encourage them to work for their current pay in schools of higher learning where they were needed. The new system was to be extended to schools of all kinds and other education departments within two years Scholarship and loan system 5 In July 1986 the State Council announced that the stipend system for university and college students would be replaced with a new scholarship and loan system. The new system, tested in selected institutions during the academic years, was designed to help students who could not cover their own living expenses but who studied hard, obeyed state laws, and observed discipline codes. Students eligible for financial aid were to apply to the schools and the China Industrial and Commercial Bank for low-interest loans. Three categories of students eligible for aid were established: top students encouraged to attain all-around excellence; students specializing in education, agriculture, forestry, sports, and marine navigation; and students willing to work in poor, remote, and border regions or under harsh conditions, such as in mining and engineering. In addition, free tuition and board were to be offered at teachers' colleges, and the graduates were required to teach at least five years in primary and middle schools. After graduation, a student's loans were to be paid off by his or her employer in a lump sum, and the money was to be repaid to the employer by the student through five years of payroll deductions Study abroad 6 In addition to loans, another means of raising educational quality, particularly in science, was to send students abroad to study. A large number of Chinese students studied in the Soviet Union before educational links and other cooperative programs with the Soviet Union were severed in the late 1950s (see Sino-Soviet split). In the 1960s and 1970s, China continued to send a small number of /34

9 students abroad, primarily to European universities. In October 1978 Chinese students began to arrive in the United States; their numbers accelerated after normalization of relations between the two countries in January 1979, a policy consistent with modernization needs. Although figures vary, more than 36,000 students, including 7,000 self-supporting students (those who paid their own way, received scholarships from host institutions, or received help from relatives and "foreign friends"), studied in 14 countries between 1978 and Of this total, 78 percent were technical personnel sent abroad for advanced study. As of mid-1986 there were 15,000 Chinese scholars and graduates in American universities, compared with the total of 19,000 scholars sent between 1979 and Chinese students sent to the United States generally were not typical undergraduates or graduate students but were mid-career scientists, often thirty-five to forty-five years of age, seeking advanced training in their areas of specialization. Often they were individuals of exceptional ability who occupied responsible positions in Chinese universities and research institutions. Fewer than 15 percent of the earliest arrivals were degree candidates. Nearly all the visiting scholars were in scientific fields Policy Major Changes in Recent Years 7 According to the CIGI Policy Brief June 2008 issue, a major transformation of higher education has been underway in China since 1999 and will have potential impacts for the global educational structure. Reflecting China s commitment to continued high growth through quality upgrading and the production of ideas and intellectual property as set out in both the 10th ( ) and 11th ( ) five-year plans, this transformation focuses on major new resource commitments to tertiary education and also embodies significant changes in organizational form. The number of undergraduate and graduate students in China has been growing at approximately 30% per year since 1999, and the number of graduates at all levels of higher education in China has approximately quadrupled in the last six years. The size of entering classes of new students and total student enrolments have risen even faster, and have approximately quintupled. It is widely recognized that there will be substantially more PhD engineers and scientists in China in 2010 than in the United States, since on a flow basis China produces three times the number of engineers compared to the US. Skilled labour supply in China now equals around 40 percent of that in all OECD countries. These higher education changes have also been accompanied by a change in focus from quantity flow-through in education in the pre-1999 period, to an elevated emphasis on quality post Educational attainment in China is now subject to firm quantity indicators that are designed to drive continued improvement of educational quality by participating institutions. Funding is no longer simply a matter of increasing the numbers of students enrolled; universities and institutions of high education in China are now subject to extraordinary pressures to upgrade themselves in terms of objective rankings. High priority is placed on international rankings taken as publications in international journals, citations, and international cooperation. These are used as demonstrations of elevation of attainment for each educational institution and funding is directly linked to these indicators. A further feature of recent Chinese higher education policy has been both to promote so-called elite universities and also to consolidate other universities and reduce their numbers. Elite universities are the top ten universities in China, which receive the largest education funds from central and local governments. They have priority in selecting students through national entrance exams and have the best faculty and research resources in China. The focus of policy is to elevate a small number of Chinese universities to world-class status, and both strengthen them and make them bigger. All universities in China have in recent years been subject to directives from central ministries to substantially increase their numbers of undergraduate students, even if significant increases in infrastructure to handle this increase in student numbers lags. Increases in undergraduates of 30 percent a year have been common in many universities are as a result of this policy. 7 Higher Educational Transformation in China and Its Global Implications, CIGI Policy Briefs June /34

10 Project 211 & Project Project 211 was established in the 1990 s by the Central Government of the People's Republic China according to the national higher education strategic policy. 211 means 100 Priority Universities in the 21st century. At present Project 211 has a total of 107 state-level and provincial level universities, of which 104 are non-military ones and 3 are military academies. (Please see appendix for a list of 211 Project universities.) The numbers of Priority Universities in various provinces and municipalities are as follows: Beijing 23 Tianjin 3 Hebei 1 Shanxi 1 Inner Mongolia 1 Liaoning 4 Henan 1 Jilin 3 Shanghai 10 Heilongjiang 4 Jiangsu 11 Zhejiang 1 Anhui 3 Fujian 2 Jiangxi 1 Shandong 3 Hubei 7 Hunan 4 Guangdong 5 Guangxi 1 Hainan 0 Chongqing 2 Sichuan 5 Guizhou 1 Yunnan 1 Tibet 0 Qinghai 0 Shanxi 7 Gansu 1 Ningxia 0 Xinjiang 1 During the 9 th 5-year plan period, 602 priority subjects will be funded by Project 211 : Subject area Number of programs % of total funding Social sciences 62 10% Economics, politics and law 57 10% Basic sciences 89 15% Environmental studies 42 7% Traditional and high-tech % Medicine 66 11% Agricultural 31 5% About RMB18.3 billion was allocated to Project 211 during the 9 th 5-year plan period. Funding Area RMB in Millions % of Total Funding Subject Funds 6,388 35% Collective Services System Funds 3,500 19% Infrastructural Facilities Funds 1,006 6% Matching Facilities Construction Funds 7,332 40% Total 18, % On 4 May 1998, ex-general Secretary of Jiang Zemin, in celebration of the 100th anniversary of Peking, announced that in order to achieve China s modernization, the country must have world-class Universities. Based on that, the Ministry of Education planned the 985 project to support top Chinese universities such as Tsinghua and Beida. (Please see appendix for a list of 985 Project universities.) 2.3. Comparison between China and the West Chinese universities have very different administrative power structures management styles to the West, such as the UK. According to Prof. Sun from Huazhong, higher education institutions in China uses a direct control system that runs right through from the State Council to individual departments in a university, while the West tend to have less government intervention and give a lot /34

11 more autonomy to the Chancellors in individual universities. Nevertheless, this situation is changing in China due to recent education reforms whereas a more market focused approach is required International Cooperation between China and Other Countries With the return of Hong Kong in 1997, a strong movement of cooperation between Chinese universities and Western universities began. Today, China has established educational relationships with countries across Europe, Central, North and South America, Oceania, Africa and the rest of Asia. Agreements on mutual recognition of academic degrees have been signed between China and, e.g., Germany, the UK, France and New Zealand. In the meanwhile, international educational cooperation agreements and memoranda of understanding on educational cooperation have been signed with, e.g., the USA, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand (MoE 2007). Countries which signed agreements on mutual recognition of academic degrees with China Year Country Year Country 1988 Sri Lanka 1998 Belarus 1990 Bulgaria 1998 Ukraine 1991 Algeria 1998 Mongolia 1991 Peru 2000 Belarus 1992 Mauritius 2002 Kyrgyzistan 1993 Uzbekistan 2002 Germany 1994 Cameroon 2003 United Kingdom 1995 Romania 2003 France 1995 Russia 2003 Australia 1997 Egypt 2003 New Zealand 1997 Hungary Source: MoE (in Chinese) /34

12 3. S & T Research in China 3.1. Overview of the S & T system in China The Communist Party of China Central Committee and the State Council, on May 6, 1995 issued the 'Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the State Council on the Acceleration of Progress in Science and Technology'. The 'Decision' set the goal of overall (both public and private) to attain Chinese R&D spending equivalent to 1.5% of GDP by the year It urged scientific academies and institutes of higher education to set up high tech companies. The 'Decision' noted that science and technology are the chief forces of social and economic development. The leadership directed Chinese science and technology problems such as population control, feeding the population, the environment (including pollution abatement technologies), and public health (such as pharmaceuticals development). The 'Decision' called for a reform of the Chinese science and technology structure to meet the needs of the socialist market economy. Science should move out of the institutes into private enterprises. Government research institutes should enter into cooperative ventures with Chinese and foreign companies, decide by themselves what direction their research should take, and become responsible for whatever profits or losses they incur. The flow of personnel, information, and capital must become faster and smoother so that companies (as well as government research institutes and universities which have created their own high tech companies) can orient their research programs according to market needs (and consequently to what the market is willing to fund). 9 The state expenditure on S &T has increased at higher rates after Year 2000 as shown in the following charts. R&D Expenditure ( ) Source: MOST Since 1999, China s spending on research has increased by more than 20% each year. In 2005, it reached 1.5% of GDP, up from 0.7% in In 2005, China became the third R&D spender world wide (in purchasing power parity terms) after the United States and Japan The New Geography of Science: UK Research and International Collaboration, Evidence Ltd., September OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2007 OECD /34

13 Patent applications filed and patents granted by SIPO Source: MOST China ranks sixth world wide in terms of publications and has raised its share in triadic patents from close to zero in 1995 to 0.8% in Abbreviations: GDP Gross Domestic Product GERD Gross Domestic Expenditure on R&D R&D Research and Development S&T Science and Technology China has built up thousands of new and high-tech development zones. In the 53 state-level new and high-tech development zones, a great many sci-tech research results have been put into use in production. By 2004, there had been over 30,000 high-tech enterprises in these zones, 20 of which had annual production values over 10 billion yuan, more than 200 over five billion yuan, and 3,000 over 100 million yuan. In these zones, the average growth in major economic indicators has been maintained at 60 percent per annum for 12 years running, and they have become important engines of national economic growth. Private science and technology enterprises have also made some headway, some becoming group corporations with annual output values of anything from several hundred million up to several billion yuan. Their high-tech products now account for over half of the domestic market for such products. Establishing export bases for new and high-tech products in selected high-tech industrial development zones is an important part of the government's plan for developing trade through science and technology. The first designated export bases, selected because of their rapid overall development, rich talent, excellent equipment, and rapidly growing exports of high-tech products, include the Beijing Zhongguancun Science and Technology Park and high-tech industrial development zones in Tianjin, Shanghai, Heilongjiang, Jiangsu, Anhui, Shandong, Hubei, Guangdong, Shaanxi, Dalian, Xiamen, Qingdao and Shenzhen. The Pearl River Delta, Yangtze River Delta and the Beijing-Tianjin region have the greatest concentration of such export bases, consequently export volumes of new and hightech products from these areas account for over 80 percent of the national total. 12 OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2007 OECD /34

14 3.2. Structure 13 China's scientific research system is a cooperative one, comprising the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), schools of higher learning, industrial departments, national defense departments and local scientific research institutes. The over 160 national scientific and academic organizations affiliated to the China Association for Science and Technology, as well as its branches in various large and medium-sized cities, are also important forces in scientific and technological research. The Beijing-based CAS is China's highest academic institute and comprehensive research center in natural sciences. Its academic divisions include mathematics and physics, chemistry, geography, biology, technological sciences, and it has more than 100 research institutes throughout China. Before 2010, the CAS plans to found some 80 national research institutes specializing in scientific and technological innovation and continuous development. There are approximately 700 CAS Academicians -- the highest life-time academic title the government grants in science and technology. The average age of the 58 elected in 2003 was 58.86, the youngest group ever, the two youngest being only 37 years old. The Chinese Academy of Engineering (CAE) is the highest honorary, consultative institute in engineering science and technology, conducting strategic studies of the state's important engineering-related issues, providing consultation for decision-making, and promoting the development of engineering science and technology. There were 663 CAE academicians, including 62 elected in The role of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) is to support basic research and some applied research projects using government appropriations in line with the state's guiding principles and sci-tech development policies. Over the past dozen years, the NSFC has subsidized thousands of diverse research projects and about 60,000 scientists working in basic research. Peer review by funding organizations such as the National Science Foundation of China over the past decade has improved the effectiveness of science funding and raised the quality of Chinese science. The NNSFC in 1999 funded 16% of the 20,000 grant applications it receives each year from its annual budget of RMB 800 million (USD 100 million) which has increased nearly 20% annually since the founding of the NNSFC ten years ago. NNSFC now awards more research grants on a competitive basic than does the Ministry of Science and Technology which awards RMB 500 million annually. NNSFC grants often serve as seed money attesting to the quality of a project. Local government money often follows thereafter. The Chinese leadership set the goal of total (central and local government) Chinese spending on basic and applied research to reach 1.5 % of GDP by the year NNSFC spending is a small but growing fraction of that amount. Shielded from government-wide funding costs, the NNSFC s budget is becoming an increasingly large part of China s basic research spending. Grants include neither overhead nor salary but are dedicated to direct research costs. Three types of programs: young scientist, building science in the developing regions of China and new high tech concepts account for 80% of the NNSFC budget. The young scientist program also provides for short-term (up to six months) training overseas and for the support of visiting foreign scientists. Chinese scientists serve for two to four years on a review panel for their field. The process from application to decision on the three year grants takes about six months. The NNSFC funds 60 major projects at 5 million RMB per year and other projects at 1 million RMB per year as well as a large number of smaller grants at 150,000 RMB per year. The grants are low compared with the average U.S. grant size but are larger than they appear since the grants are for direct research costs and exclude salaries which typically account for 60% of U.S. research grants. One scientist said that the invention of the Chinese word processor made peer review possible, since I know the calligraphy of everyone in my field! Concerned about corruption in Chinese science Some Chinese scientists, including Professor Liu Ming of Zhejiang in his 2005 book "Critique of the Academic Evaluation System", argue that /34

15 interference from government officials and university bureaucrats makes peer review far less effective in China than it could be. The time scientists spend cultivating politically influential people is lost to scientific research. Liu argues that the command economy mentality of measuring everything by the numbers combined with pervasive political interference results in a great waste of money, human talent as well as considerable corruption in Chinese science National Programmes 14 Since the 1980s, China has formulated a series of national programs for science and technology research and development, with the strategic aim of improving China's competitiveness in science and technology in the 21st century. The Key Technologies Resarch and Development Program, the 863 Program and the 973 Program form the main body of state programs for science and technology. The Spark and the Torch programs have been important in raising China's strength in this area Key Technologies Research and Development Program The "Key Technologies Research and Development Program", launched in 1982, was the biggest scientific and technological program in China during the 20th century. Oriented toward national economic construction, it aims to solve critical, direction-related and comprehensive problems in national economic and social development; it covers agriculture, electronic information, energy, transport, materials, resources exploration, environmental protection and medical care, and other fields. Engaging tens of thousands of researchers in over 1,000 research institutes, the Key Technologies Program has had the largest funds, employed the most people and had the greatest impact on national economy of any plan to date Program In March 1986, the "National Hi-tech Research and Development Program" (863 Program) was launched, after exhaustive examination by scientists. The Program set 20 themes in biology, spaceflight, information, laser, automation, energy, new materials and oceanography. Government's role is one of macro-control and support. The general research is decided on by scientific discussion, and specific projects determined by a committee of experts responsible for keeping abreast of international research developments, and reporting annually on their own fields, so as to set new research directions. Another distinctive feature of the program is that its results can be quickly industrialized Program A national key program for development of basic scientific research, the 973 Program was launched in It mainly involves multi-disciplinary, comprehensive research on important scientific issues in such fields as agriculture, energy, information, resources, population, health, and materials, providing theoretical basis and scientific foundations for solving problems. The program encourages outstanding scientists to carry out key basic research in cutting-edge science and important sci-tech issues in fields with a great bearing on socio-economic development. Representing China's national goals, it aims to provide strong scientific and technological support for significant issues in China's 21st century socio-economic development /34

16 Torch Program Launched in August 1988, the Torch Program is China's most important high-tech industry program and a national guideline program. As such, it includes: organizing and putting into action a series of development projects for high-tech products with advanced technology levels and good economic benefits in domestic and foreign markets; establishing high-tech industrial development zones throughout the country; and, exploring management systems and operation mechanisms suitable for hi-tech industrial development. The Program mainly involves projects in new technological fields, such as new materials, biotechnology, electronic information, integrated mechanical-electrical technology, and advanced and energy-saving technology Spark Program Launched in 1986, the Spark Program aims to revitalize rural economy through development and popularization of science and technology in rural areas so as to improve the lives of the rural population. Today, there are more than 140,000 sci-tech demonstration projects being carried out in 90 percent of rural areas throughout China Protection of Intellectual Property Rights 15 Since China joined the WTO and signed the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS agreement), the Chinese patent system is in line with international standards and conventions. Applications to the Chinese Patent Office have picked up considerably since then. Nevertheless, the situation still falls short of the needs of both domestic and foreign-owned innovative enterprises operating in China. Infringement of intellectual property rights, particularly of copyright and trademarks, remains a concern. With quite sophisticated IP regulations in place, the current level of infringement mainly points to weaknesses in the enforcement of IPR regulations. Both judicial and administrative decisions are difficult to enforce owing to the lack of appropriate infrastructure and mechanisms as well as of manpower. While top leaders in the Chinese government have become aware of the importance of building a sound legal framework for IPR protection which is already much improved enforcement of the laws, especially at the local level, need to be substantially improved. However, China s move towards a more innovation-based economy can be expected to lead to improvements. As Chinese enterprises become more innovative, they, too, are adversely affected by a lack of effective IPR protection. Therefore, it is likely that awareness of this problem will become more widespread and lead to effective counter-measures. Tsinghua, one of China s largest IPR applicants, vigorously pursues every instance of infringement. The Chinese Patent Office has conducted an active campaign to distribute information on IPR Comparison between China and the West Traditional Chinese culture takes the system as a whole by looking into the relationships of matters; it pays more attention on mystical abstracts and invisible contents. Traditional western culture takes individual itself as the subject of study; it pays more attention to empirical analysis on obvious contents. 16 The cultural differences between China and the West determine the different management styles in S & T research activities. 15 OECD reviews of innovation policy in China, OECD Comparison of Chinese and Western Culture and Understanding of Modern Science, Ni Xiangbao, Suzhou Press /34

17 The fact that most scientific research projects are financed by the state means that China has a very direct control and top-down administrative system on S & T. It is quite the opposite in the West, where government funding and private investment in innovation and research are equally important. It is not uncommon to see a bottom-up management style in the West. The different systems and management styles have made international cooperation with China in joint projects which seek funding from both inside and outside China difficult to achieve International Cooperation between China and Other Countries in S & T 17 China has cooperated through programs in science and technology with 152 countries and regions, signed inter-governmental sci-tech cooperation agreements with 96 countries and joined more than 1,000 international sci-tech cooperation organizations. Non-governmental international cooperation and exchanges have also been increasing. The China Association for Science and Technology and affiliated organizations have joined 244 international scientific and technological organizations; in international scientific and technological organizations, Chinese researchers hold 293 executive member-director or higher level posts, 281 leading posts on expert committees of international organizations; and 253 CAS scientists hold posts in international scientific organizations. The China Natural Science Foundation has concluded cooperative agreements and memoranda with counterpart organizations in 36 countries. The International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Award of the People's Republic of China is a national science and technology award established by the State Council. It is granted to foreign scientists, science and technology engineers and managers, or organizations that have made important contributions to China's bilateral or multilateral scientific and technological cooperation. By the end of 2004, 35 foreign experts have won the award /34

18 4. Sino Swiss Cooperation in Higher Education and Research 4.1. Status Quo Cooperation between China and Switzerland in science and education has a long tradition. Exchange has been taken place on an individual and institutional basis for decades. In 1989, the two countries decided to formalize their cooperation and to sign an Agreement on Science and Technology. Since then, a large number of Swiss universities, universities of applied sciences and institutes have entered into bilateral cooperation programs with Chinese counterparts. Cooperation and exchange on an individual (researchers, students, and faculty) and institutional basis remains the fundament of bilateral relations between Switzerland and China. In 2003, the Sino-Swiss Science and Technology Cooperation (SSSTC) program was established, after the signing of a memorandum of understanding (MoU) between the SER and the Chinese Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST). Based on this MoU, steps have been taken to promote collaborations between Swiss and Chinese scientists during the pilot phase ( ). The result of this pilot phase SSSTC is the establishment of a basic framework for science and technology cooperation between China and Switzerland. The SSSTC program encourages long term partnership and aims to provide opportunities for collaboration between Swiss and Chinese research institutions. In 1963, the first school exchange between Switzerland and China took place. Between 1963 and 1999, China offered 419 scholarships to Swiss students. In 2006, an agreement was signed to allow the Swiss part to offer 10 federal and 8 cantonal scholarships to Chinese students per year, making it possible for young Chinese scientists to improve in Switzerland. While the Chinese part offers 18 state scholarships to Swiss students in theory and 30 places of exonerated studies of right of schooling (tuition-free). The number of the exact scholarships offered will be confirmed each year per exchange of diplomatic note. Although it is difficult to get exact figures, an estimated 250 Chinese students have studied abroad in Swiss universities and about 50 Swiss students in Chinese universities in Opportunities for the Future At the end of 2007, the Swiss Federal Government decided on additional funding to be used to develop bilateral cooperation with a selected group of non-european countries. Together with India, China is the priority-country within this group with additional funding of over CHF 8 Million for the period of 2008 until This allowed for the launch of a new phase of the SSSTC: in order to broadly reach Chinese scientists, the Action Phase of SSSTC ( ) intends to reach beyond the MOST and to include the Ministry of Education (MOE) and Chinese Academy of Science (CAS) in the program as well. ETH Zürich is the leading house (LH) for the program, and of Zürich has been selected as the associated leading house (ALH). Through an expansion of the priority areas as well as the increased mode of collaboration, it is hoped that the action phase of SSSTC will maintain and deepen the existing cooperation between Swiss and Chinese scholars. The call for proposals for joint research projects was launched in May 2008 and was completed in July The proposals will be evaluated by the Swiss National Science Foundation and the selected project will be co-funded by Switzerland and China. 18 These numbers are estimates by the Embassy in Beijing, based on provided scholarships, applications for student visas and university-indications. 18/34

19 Appendices Appendix I Project Universities 19/34 19/34

20 北京 Beijing 清华大学 Beijing Beijing Beijing Beijing Beijing 北京工业大学 北京化工大学 中国传媒大学 对外经济贸易大学 中国政法大学 上海市 Shanghai 上海外国语大学 天津 Shanghai Shanghai 东华大学上海交通大学与上海第二医科大学合并 南开大学 Tsinghua 北京大学 Peking 中国人民大学 Beijing of 北京航空航天大 Technology 学 Beihang 北京理工大学 Beijing of Chemical Technology Communication of China of International Business and Economics China of Political Sciences and Law 北京邮电大学 中央民族大学 北京中医药大学 中央财经大学 Beijing of Posts and Telecommunication 中国农业大学 The Central for Nationalities Beijing of Chinese Medicine Central of Finance and Economics 北京师范大学 北京外国语大学 华北电力大学 Shanghai International Studies 复旦大学 Fudan 华东师范大学 Donghua Shanghai Jiao Tong 上海财经大学 Shanghai of Finance and Economics 华东理工大学 Nankai 天津大学 Tianjin 天津医科大学 Renmin of China Beijing Institute of Technology China Agricultural Beijing Normal Beijing Foreign Studies North China Electric Power 北京交通大学 北京科技大学 北京林业大学 中央音乐学院 中国地质大学 ( 北京 ) 北京体育大学 Beijing Jiaotong of Science and Technology Beijing Beijing Forestry Central Conservatory of Music China of Geosciences Beijing Sport East China Normal 上海大学 Shanghai East China of Science and Technology 同济大学 Tongji Tianjin Medical 20/34 20/34

21 重庆 河北 山西 内蒙古 辽宁 重庆大学 河北工业大学 太原理工大学 内蒙古大学 大连理工大学 Chongqing Hebei of Technology Taiyuan of Science and Technology Inner Mongolia Dalian of Science and Technology 西南大学 东北大学 吉林吉林大学 Jilin 东北师范大学 黑龙江 哈尔滨工业大学 江苏 Jiangsu 南京大学 Jiangsu Jiangsu 中国矿业大学 江南大学 浙江 (1 所 ) Zhejiang 浙江大学 安徽 (3 所 ) Anhui 中国科学技术大学 Harbin Institute of Technology Nanjing China of Mining and Technology Jiangnan 哈尔滨工程大学 东南大学 中国药科大学 南京农业大学 Southwest Northeast Northeast Normal Harbin Engineering Southeast 辽宁大学 延边大学 东北农业大学 苏州大学 Liaoning Yanbian Northeast Agricultural Suzhou 大连海事大学 东北林业大学 南京师范大学 China Pharmaceutical 河海大学 Hohai 南京理工大学 Nanjing Agricultural 南京航空航天大学 Zhejiang China of Science and Technology 安徽大学 Anhui 合肥工业大学 Nanjing of Aeronautics and Astronautics Hefei of Technology Dalian Maritime Northeast Forestry Nanjing Normal Nanjing of Science and Technology 21/34 21/34

22 福建 (2 所 ) Fujian 厦门大学 江西 (1 所 ) Jiangxi 南昌大学 Xiamen 福州大学 Fuzhou Nanchang 山东 (3 所 ) Shandong 山东大学 河南 (1 所 ) Henan 郑州大学 Shandong Zhengzhou 中国海洋大学 Ocean of China 中国石油大学 China of Petroleum 湖北 (7 所 ) Hubei 武汉大学 Wuhan 华中科技大学 Huazhong of Science and Technology 武汉理工大学 Wuhan of Science and Technology 中国地质大学 ( 武汉 ) China of Geosciences (Wuhan Campus) Hubei 华中师范大学 湖南 (3 所 ) Hunan 湖南大学 广东 (5 所 ) Guangdong 中山大学 广西 ( 共 1 所 ) Guangxi 广西大学 Huazhong Normal Hunan 华中农业大学 中南大学 Huazhong Agricultural Zhongnan 中南财经政法大学 湖南师范大学 Sun Yat-Sen 暨南大学 Jinan 华南理工大学 Guangxi Zhongnan of Finance and Economics Hunan Normal South China of Technology 华南师范大学 South China Normal 四川 ( 共 5 所 ) Sichuan 四川大学 Sichuan 西南交通大学 Southwest Jiao Tong 电子科技大学 of Electronic Science and Technology of China 四川农业大学 Sichuan Agricultural Sichuan 西南财经大学 云南 (1 所 ) Yunan 云南大学 Southwest of Finance and Economics Yunnan 22/34 22/34

23 贵州 (1 所 ) Guizhou 贵州大学 Guizhou 陕西 (7 所 ) Shanxi 西北大学 Shanxi 西北农林科技大学 甘肃 (1 所 ) Gansu 兰州大学 新疆 (1 所 ) Xinjiang 新疆大学 Northwest Northwest A & F Lanzhou Xinjiang 西安交通大学 陕西师范大学 Xi'an Jiao Tong Shanxi Normal 西北工业大学西安电子科技大学 Northwest of Technology 长安大学 Chang'an Xidian 军事系统 (3 所 ) Military 第二军医大学 Source: Second Military Medical 第四军医大学 Forth Military Medical 国防科技大学 National of Defence Technology 23/34 23/34

24 Appendix II Project Universities 19 First Stage: (34) Tsinghua Beijing China of Science and Technology Nanjing Fudan Shanghai Jiaotong Xi'an Jiaotong Zhejiang Harbin of Technology Nankai Tianjin Southeast Huazhong of Science and Technology Wuhan Xiamen Shandong Hunan China Oceanography Zhongnan Jilin Beijing of Technology Dalian of Science and Technology Beijing of Aeronautics and Astronautics Chongqing China of Electronic Science and Technology Sichuan Huanan of Science and Technology Zhongshan Lanzhou Northeast Northwestern of Science and Technology Tongji Beijing Normal Renmin of China Second Stage: (4) China Agricultural National of Defense Technology Central of Nationalities Northwest A & F /34

25 Appendix III - Top 100 Chinese Universities Ranked By Achievements in Scientific Research 20 Ranking of Top 100 Chinese Universities by Output of Scientific Research Rank 大学名称 Name of 1 清华大学 Tsinghua 2 浙江大学 Zhejiang 3 中国科学技术大学 China of Science and Technology 4 上海交通大学 Shanghai Jiaotong 5 北京师范大学 Beijing Normal 6 哈尔滨工业大学 Harbin Institute of Technology 7 北京大学 Peking 8 南京大学 Nanjing 9 复旦大学 Fudan 10 天津大学 Tianjin 11 大连理工大学 Dalian of Science and Technology 12 南开大学 Nankai 13 西安交通大学 Xi'an Jiaotong 14 西北工业大学 North-western Polytechnic 15 北京航空航天大学 Beijing of Aeronautics and Astronautics 16 华中科技大学 Huazhong of Science and Technology 17 武汉大学 Wuhan 18 北京理工大学 Beijing Institute of Technology 19 中国人民大学 Renmin of China 20 山东大学 Shandong 21 吉林大学 Jilin 22 中南大学 South central 23 电子科技大学 of Electronic Science and Technology of China 24 北京交通大学 Beijing Jiaotong 25 中山大学 Zhongshan 26 四川大学 Sichuan 27 南京航空航天大学 Nanjing of Aeronautics and Astronautics 28 东南大学 Southeast 29 北京科技大学 Beijing of Science and Technology 30 兰州大学 Lanzhou 31 北京化工大学 Beijing Chemical industry 32 华南理工大学 Huanan of Science and Technology 33 华东师范大学 East China Normal university 34 华东理工大学 China Science and Technology 35 湖南大学 Hunan 36 厦门大学 Xiamen 37 东北大学 Northeast 38 西安电子科技大学 Xidian /34

26 39 同济大学 Tongji Rank 大学名称 Name of 40 北京邮电大学 Beijing of Posts and Telecommunications 41 南京理工大学 Nanjing of Science and Technology 42 中国农业大学 China Agricultural college 43 中国海洋大学 China Oceanography 44 西北师范大学 Northwest Normal university 45 北京工业大学 Beijing Industrial university 46 东北师范大学 Northeast Normal 47 上海大学 Shanghai 48 华中师范大学 Central China Normal university 49 南京工业大学 Nanjing Industrial university 50 东华大学 Donghua 51 上海财经大学 Shanghai Finance and economics 52 沈阳药科大学 Shenyang Medicine Branch 53 福建师范大学 Fujian Normal university 54 重庆大学 Chongqing 55 苏州大学 Suzhou 56 西南交通大学 Southwest Jiaotong 57 福州大学 Fuzhou 58 西北大学 Northwest 59 首都师范大学 Capital Normal 60 江南大学 South of Yangzi River 61 中国药科大学 Chinese Medicine Branch 62 中国矿业大学 Chinese Mining Industry 63 华南师范大学 South China Normal 64 陕西师范大学 Shanxi Normal university 65 湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal university 66 暨南大学 Jinan 67 湘潭大学 Xiangtan 68 浙江工业大学 Zhejiang Industrial university 69 云南大学 Yunnan 70 南京师范大学 Nanjing Normal 71 浙江师范大学 Zhejiang Normal university 72 汕头大学 Shantou 73 深圳大学 Shenzhen 74 哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering 75 青岛科技大学 Qingdao Scientific and technical university 76 山西大学 Shanxi 77 西南财经大学 Southwest Finance and economics 78 南京农业大学 Nanjing Agricultural College 79 燕山大学 Yanshan 80 华北电力大学 North China Electric Power 81 华东政法大学 East China Politics and law 82 中国石油大学 China Petroleum university 83 武汉理工大学 Wuhan of Science and Technology 84 西南大学 Southwest university 85 西南政法大学 Southwest Politics and law 86 河南师范大学 Henan Normal university 87 江苏大学 Jiangsu 88 河北大学 Hebei 89 合肥工业大学 Hefei Industrial university 26/34