Contents. Chapter 1 Introduction - Elements of English 1. Chapter 2 Nouns 27. Bibliografische Informationen

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1 Contents Foreword VII Chapter 1 Introduction - Elements of English On grammar The character of English 3 002/1 Who speaks English? 3 002/2 Where English comes from 3 002/3 Language varieties 5 002/4 Regional variants of English and standard languages Some basic concepts in language study /1 Some general fields of language /2 Basic grammatical categories /3 Sentence functions /4 Sentence types and sentence patterns 24 Chapter 2 Nouns Basic features: introduction Main grammatical features /1 Nouns and noun phrases /2 Syntactic roles of noun phrases /3 Morphological invariance /4 Number: singular and plural /5 Countability /6 The genitive Main semantic features /1 Common and proper nouns /2 Common nouns: concrete or abstract /3 Common nouns: individual, mass, collective, and pair nouns From singular to plural Regular plural formation /1 Regular changes in spelling and pronunciation /2 Special cases Irregular plural formation /1 Vowel change /2 Plurals in -en/-ence /3 Singular-plurals 36 Bibliografische Informationen digitalisiert durch

2 X Contents 007/4 Plural-singulars /5 Greek and Latin plurals /6 Modern loan-word plurals Number, countability and meaning: details of use /1 Individual nouns /2 Mass nouns /3 Collective nouns /4 Pair nouns /5 Quantifying non-count nouns /6 Mass, collective and pair nouns with different German equivalents /7 Summary: common nouns with different meanings in singular and plural The genitive The s-genitive: form and syntax /1 Spelling /2 Pronunciation /3 Syntax The of-genitive: form and syntax /1 As a postmodifying prepositional phrase /2 As part of a premodifying expression of quantity /3 The "double genitive" The genitive in general use /1 Animate nouns: s-genitive /2 Inanimate nouns: of-genitive Some specific uses of the genitive /1 Quantifying expressions /2 Constitutive meaning /3 The pronoun s-genitive with localities /4 Genitives with verb-related nouns /5 Beyond the genitive: the collocational nature of "prepositional of with verb-related nouns /6 The compound noun in genitive meaning Summary: s-genitive and of-genitive in contrast /1 The s-genitive in general use; exceptions /2 The of-genitive in general use; exceptions Noun forms Common suffixes /1 Describing a state, condition or characteristic /2 Describing an action or state, or the result of one /3 Describing a person/thing carrying out an action, or affected by one 60

3 Contents XI 014/4 Describing fields of study, belief, professional activity or behaviour /5 Suffixes with mixed reference Prefixes /1 Opposites /2 Describing place, order, size and rank /3 Describing self and others /4 Referring to number and quantity /5 Meaning "badly/wrongly" Compound nouns /1 Two separate nouns /2 The "hyphen" question /3 Two nouns as one /4 Singular in the first element /5 Other types of compound noun /6 Pronunciation: stress /7 Plural forms Compound nouns: summary and points of difficulty /1 Type and spelling /2 Pronunciation: stress Some other processes of noun formation /1 Old forms into new /2 Old words, new meanings /3 New words, new meanings 71 Chapter 3 Pronouns, Determiners and Quantifiers Pronouns Main grammatical features Pronoun types /1 Personal pronouns /2 Possessives /3 Reflexive pronouns: self and others /4 Reflexive pronouns: further points of usage /5 Pronoun table (summary) /6 Reflexives, possessives and personal pronouns: summary of important points and common difficulties /7 Other pronoun types Determiners Main grammatical and semantic features Determiner types /1 The indefinite article 84

4 XII Contents 022/2 The definite article /3 The zero article /4 The definite article with names /5 The definite article in other 'borderline' uses /6 Demonstrative determiners Quantifiers Main grammatical and semantic features Distributives /1 all /2 both /3 every /4 each /5 either /6 Negative distributives: not + either/neither/nor /7 Other negative distributives Indefinite quantifiers /1 some /2 any /3 much/many/a lot of /4 little/few/a little/a few/several /5 more/most, less/least, fewer/fewest 140 Chapter 4 Adjectives Basic features The syntax of adjectives /1 Position and function /2 The adjective phrase Adjective meaning and adjective grammar /1 Common semantic categories /2 Some special sub-types /3 Adjective position: attributive only /4 Adjective position: predicative only /5 Clause reduction /6 Attributive postmodification /7 Attributive premodification /8 Gradable and non-gradable adjectives /9 Proper adjectives Adjective forms /1 Affixes /2 Other words in adjective functions 154

5 Contents XIII 029/3 Compound adjectives Aspects of usage /1 Adjectives as nouns /2 Some special cases /3 Adjectival complements Comparison /1 Types of comparison /2 Forming the comparative and superlative /3 Use of comparative and superlative /4 Equative comparison /5 Deficit and surplus comparatives compared /6 Comparative constructions and their syntax /7 Superlatives /8 Non-adjective comparison /9 Summary of different comparative types and structures 186 Chapter 5 Adverbs Basic features Adverb meaning /1 Semantic types /2 The adverb phrase and its functions /3 Adverb position: general /4 Adverb position according to meaning /5 Position of other adverbials /6 Usage: some special cases Adverb forms /1 Derived adverbs /2 Non-derived adverbs and other special groups /3 Comparison of adverbs 218 Chapter 6 Prepositions Basic features Individual prepositions and their meanings /1 Prepositions of place and direction /2 Prepositions of time /3 Prepositions of mixed reference 243 Chapter 7 Conjunctions Basic features Individual conjunctions and their meanings /1 Conjunctions expressing cause (reason) 247

6 XIV Contents 038/2 Conjunctions expressing time relations /3 Conjunctions expressing conditions /4 Conjunctions expressing addition /5 Contrast and contradiction with subordinating conjunctions /6 Mixed conjunctions Conjunction clauses and sentence syntax /1 Clauses as adverbials /2 Clauses as subjects, objects and complements /3 Adverbs as subordinators instead of conjunctions /4 Further subordination /5 Clause reduction to indicate function /6 Clauses as parts of phrases /7 Comma rules 272 Chapter 8 Verbs: Basic Features, Syntax and Forms Basic features /1 The verb phrase /2 Verb morphology Syntax: the verb in the sentence /1 The verb and its complementation /2 The verb and basic sentence operations /3 Verbal action types (modes of occurrence) Forms of verbs /1 Verb formation /2 Particle verbs /3 Formation of non-finite verbs /4 Forming progressive and perfect /5 Forming the passive 309 Chapter 9 Verbs: The Present and Past Tenses Overview The primary non-perfect tenses and their aspects /1 The general meaning of the aspects /2 The present tense and its aspects /3 The past tense: introduction /4 The past tense: forms /5 The past tense: main interplay of aspects /6 The past tense: further points on aspect usage 336 Chapter 10 Verbs: The Perfect Tenses Introduction 340

7 Contents XV 046 The present perfect /1 Time orientation and general meaning /2 Time orientation, adverbials, and tense /3 Time-span perfects: the continuative /4 Time-span perfects: the experiential /5 Non-time-span perfects: the resultative /6 The present perfect: concluding points and summary The past perfect /1 Time orientation and general meaning /2 The past perfect as present-perfect-in-the-past /3 The past perfect as past-tense-in-the-past (= pre-past use) /4 Some further points of note 368 Chapter 11 Verbs: Future and Conditional Meaning, Indirect Speech, the Passive Future meaning Introduction The forms of future reference /1 The modal future: will /2 The modal future: to be going to /3 The modal future: shall /4 The non-modal future: arrangements /5 Past and perfect meanings with future reference /6 The basics of future meaning - overview Conditional meaning Introduction Conditional meaning and conditional forms /1 Concrete points on form /2 Conditional sentences with speculative meaning /3 Conditional sentences with non-speculative modal meaning /4 False conditionals /5 Speculative conditions: other types and variants Indirect (reported) speech Introduction: direct and indirect speech ? The forms of indirect speech /1 Tense regulation in indirect speech /2 Other changes in indirect speech /3 Reporting verbs in indirect speech /4 Questions in indirect speech /5 Commands in indirect speech 420

8 XVI Contents 11.4 The passive voice Introduction: active and passive voice Forming and using the passive /1 Basic features of active-passive conversion /2 Transitive verb types and their relation to the passive /3 Further points on the passive 426 Chapter 12 Verbs: Modal Verbs Modal verbs: types and forms /1 Primary modals /2 Secondary modals Modal meanings /1 Ability/capability /2 Speculation /3 Permission /4 Directives /5 Other modal usage 456 Chapter 13 Verbs: Non-finite Verbs Basic features The infinitive Forms Infinitive constructions /1 The infinitive after verbs /2 The infinitive after verbs: some special cases /3 The infinitive after adjectives /4 Infinitive clauses as shortened relative clauses /5 Infinitive clauses as appositive postmodifications /6 Infinitives of purpose /7 Infinitives in indirect questions and indirect commands /8 Consecutive infinitives /9 The perfect, progressive and passive forms of the infinitive /10 Syntax: sentence functions in and around the infinitive The gerund Form, syntax, general meaning /1 The subject of a gerund /2 The gerund clause as subject /3 Tense, aspect and passive with the gerund Gerund constructions 491

9 Contents XVII 062/1 The gerund after verbs /2 Catenatives: gerund or infinitive according to meaning /3 Catenatives: gerund or infinitive according to grammar /4 Catenatives: gerund or infinitive with little or no difference /5 The gerund after prepositions /6 The gerund in noun compounds /7 The action nominal The participles Form, syntax, general meaning /1 Uses and functions of participles: an introduction /2 The syntax of the participle clause /3 Tense, aspect and passive with participles The participles in use /1 The present participle at sentence level /2 The present participle at phrase level /3 The present participle: some borderline cases /4 The perfect participle /5 The past participle: introduction /6 The past participle at sentence level /7 The past participle at phrase level 529 Chapter 14 Phrase and Clause at Complex Level The complex phrase Introduction Postmodification in the noun phrase /1 The relative clause /2 The relative clause: other phenomena /3 Other types of relative postmodification /4 Appositive postmodification /5 Genitive postmodification /6 Multiple postmodification Complex adjective and prepositional phrases /1 The complex adjective phrase /2 The complex prepositional phrase Aspects of the complex sentence Forms and functions /1 Clauses as subject (S) /2 Clauses as direct object (Od) /3 Clauses as subject complement (Cs) /4 Clauses as object complement (Co) 565

10 XVIII Contents 068/5 Clauses as adverbials (A) /6 Examples of sentence analysis /7 Analysing special clause and sentence types 574 Exercises to SAGE ^j utb-mehr-wissen.de