Nancy Hennessy M.Ed. 1

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1 Writing Construction Zone: A Blueprint for Effective Instruction Session 3 Continued: The intermediate-adolescent Writer: Building Critical Skills and Processes Nancy Hennessy M.Ed Agenda-Session 3 Continued: A Deeper Look at Writing Proficiency Another Look at Planning, Organizing Coherent Text Translating Thoughts into Words, Sentence, & Genre 4 Complexity of Revising and Editing Each session is intended to progressively deepen educator knowledge of research and best practices and provide instructional resources to create effective teaching learning environments. Teaching Learning Triangle. Instructional approaches, programs & materials Educators knowledge of research and best practices Informed Writing Instruction Students levels of performance Nancy Hennessy M.Ed. 1

2 Writing is a juggling act. writing mechanics writing composition macrostructure microstructure lower order skills x higher order skills + executive functions= writing proficiency Writing requires that we.. Plan, generate ideas, & organize Review, revise and edit Working memory Long term memory Executive function Translate ideas to produce written language Use transcription skills Recursive recruitment & coordination of processes Nancy Hennessy M.Ed. 2

3 Planning- Purpose Audience Ideas Why do I want to write this and for whom? Struggling writers often focus on knowledge telling. How can I organize my thoughts? Struggling writers often lack knowledge of discourse structures What ideas do I have about the why? Struggling writers often have difficulty with content, retrieval and translation. Coherence and cohesion Mather & Wendling, 2009 Think about how to organize thinking, how to develop those ideas and how the content hangs together. Think about how to glue relationships between and among ideas in the text. Does the text make sense????? Purpose & Goals An important part of doing school is the mastering of generic forms (argument, narrative & informational). Donovan & Smolkin, 2006 Informed Writing Instruction Nancy Hennessy M.Ed. 3

4 Expectations and Examples.. CCSS Write arguments to support claim. Write informative/explanatory texts to examine and convey complex ideas and information.. Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events. Examples Paragraph frames Cognitive Strategy Instruction Strategic Instruction Model See Session 3-Part 1 Text Types-Purpose Production Research Range Write arguments to support claims with clear reasons and relevant evidence. a.introduce claim(s), acknowledge and distinguish the claim(s) from alternate or opposing claims, and organize the reasons and evidence logically. b.support claim(s) with logical reasoning and relevant evidence, using accurate, credible sources and demonstrating an understanding of the topic or text. c. use words, phrases, Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development, organization, and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience. (Gradespecific expectations for writing types are defined in standards 1 3 above.) Conduct short research projects to answer a question (including a selfgenerated question), drawing on several sources and generating additional related, focused questions that allow for multiple avenues of exploration. Write routinely over extended time frames (time for research, reflection, and revision) and shorter time frames (a single sitting or a day or two) for a range of discipline-specific tasks, purposes, and audiences. Strategies-a workable plan course of action that organizes and sequence behavior. makes mental processes visible. learn new methods for composing. enhances knowledge of writing and writing process. Graham & Harris, 2005 Nancy Hennessy M.Ed. 4

5 Instructional Tools Strategy instruction (.82) involves teaching students strategies for planning, revising, and editing their compositions STOP-DARE Persuasive Essay De La Paz & Graham, 1997 Suspend judgment. Take a side. Organize ideas. Plan more as you write. Did I list ideas for each side? Can I think of anything else? Another point I haven t considered yet is Writing requires that we.. Plan, generate ideas, & organize Review, revise and edit Working memory Long term memory Executive function Translate ideas to produce written language Use transcription skills Recursive recruitment & coordination of processes Nancy Hennessy M.Ed. 5

6 Words, sentences, discourse structures??? Which words will precisely express what I mean? Struggling writers may have difficulty accessing more diverse vocabulary and world knowledge. What kind of sentence do I need to express what I mean-phrases, clauses? Struggling writers tend to use simplistic or repetitive sentence structures. What paragraph types, cohesive ties, signal words will I need to use? Struggling writers often lack knowledge of different discourse structures. How do we communicate meaning in writing? Word Parts of speech Phrase Noun Verb Preposition Dependent Clause Independen t Simple Compound Sentence Complex s Compound complex Text Narrative Expository Cohesive ties Truth or Fib There are important connections between genre and syntax. Nancy Hennessy M.Ed. 6

7 Students must acquire the linguistic resources to compose in academic genres including the use of more sophisticated word forms and syntactic structures. Berman, 2009 Certain syntactic structures, such as subordinate clauses, relative clauses, and complex noun phrases allow writers to express more complex ideas. Research on syntactic complexity has shown that students use increasingly complex syntactic structures as they gain familiarity and skill with school-related writing. Reilly, Zamora, & McGivern, 2005 Differentiation of syntactic complexity based on genre type more clauses (persuasive) more words per clause (descriptive) differences in length of text (comparecontrast shorter) Ability to write effectively in each likely compromised by limited knowledge of the syntactic structures needed to carry out their purposes effectively. Beers & Nagy, 2010 These findings suggest that although students could produce each kind of genre their ability to do so may have been compromised by their limited knowledge of the syntactic structures required to achieve text-level genre goals. Writing development in four genres from grades three to seven: syntactic complexity and genre differentiation. Beers & Nagy, 2010 Nancy Hennessy M.Ed. 7

8 What s your experience? Currently, explicit instruction in academic syntax is rare (if not) altogether absent in the elementary and secondary years. Writing in an organized and meaningful way requires. Cohesion-ways in which ideas in sentences are integrated and linked within and between sentence (lexical and transitional ties). Coherence-overall form and organization of ideas in the text (text structure). Sentence generation is the ability to convert ideas and intentions into syntactically correct written forms. If writers struggle with this skill, they may not be able to translate their thoughts into text or revise their ideas, making the text more difficult for others to read and appreciate. Saddler, 2009 Tools: Sentence frames Sentence combining Nancy Hennessy M.Ed. 8

9 Compound/complex sentence sentence which one, what kind, how many which one, what kind, how many who/w hat who/w hat who/w hat doing joiner who/ what doing joiner which one, what kind, how many doing when where how joiner doer who/w hat which one, what kind, how many doer who/w hat doing when where how Prepositions & Conjunctions-Cohesive Ties Students should be be taught to identify and use key cohesive signal words/phrases to facilitate their comprehension and production of written discourse. Transitional ties Lexical ties but, and, for, if, while. for example, in contrast. synonyms substitutions. Nancy Hennessy M.Ed. 9

10 Signal words/phrases for expository discourse structures. Causation Description Comparison Enumeration as a result, because, thus, consequently, so, therefore, if, then, reason, affected, influenced, resulted in, since defined as, called, labeled, refers to, is someone who, is, something that, can be interpreted as, describes in contrast, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the contrary, by comparison, whereas, similarly, same, different, but, yet Problem/Solution for example, such as, that is, namely, to illustrate, for instance, another, an example of solution, the problem is, the issues are, a solutions) is (are) Advanced syntactic structures. Advanced syntactic forms are often conceptualized as those million dollar words that can be used to make an individual s writing sound more sophisticated. Adolescents can be encouraged and taught to use these advanced syntactic forms when they are editing their own written work to enhance the overall style and quality of their finished written product. Ward-Lonergan, 2009 Syntactic Form Later developing conjunctions Adverbial sentence connectives Noun phrase elaboration with: Past participles Present participles Infinitives Appositives Relative clauses Verb phrase elaboration with: Multiple auxiliaries. Passive voice Examples (Modification of Nippold, 1998; Paul, 2007; Scott and Stokes, 1995) otherwise, instead, after all, though, anyway, finally, when, because nevertheless, however, furthermore, therefore, for example, in addition a tree called the elm a machine controlling his mind a good way to dance Mr. Smith, the teacher a woman, who lives next door, We could have changed it. The building was designed by a famous architect Nancy Hennessy M.Ed. 10

11 An effective strategy particularly valuable for students with written language disabilities because these children need to establish control over sentence production and increase their repertoire of sentence options. 80 years of research improves the syntactical maturity of children at nearly all grade levels. Sentence combining. create exercises explain purpose model combining practice in pairs practice independently Short, focused warm ups!!!! Check out Sentence Combining Perspectives, 2009 adjectives and adverbs compound subjects and objects compound sentences with but, and possessive nouns sentences with adverbial clauses, use connecting words (because, after, until) sentences with relative clauses Try a few.. 1. The bear ate the picnic lunch. The bear was ravenous 2. The wind was endless. The rain was endless. 3. Winter swam lazily. Her dolphin friend wanted to play. 4. Butterflies life cycle is predictable. Their survival is dependent on many factors. 5. My brother was last to finish. He is typically a slow eater. Nancy Hennessy M.Ed. 11

12 A perfectly healthy sentence, it is true, is extremely rare. For the most part, we miss the hue and fragrance of the thought; as if we could be satisfied with the dews of the morning or the evening without their colors or the heavens without their azure. Henry David Thoreau Writing frames help struggling writers use appropriate text organization for summarizing content area information that adheres to a basic structure (e.g., compare-contrast). The frames prompt coherent organization by providing partially completed sentences or transition words that, over time, can be faded as students become familiar with each frame. Expository-paragraph frames key words or phrases that structure ideas. different frames for different types of paragraphs. serve as a scaffold. Compare-Contrast and are different in many ways. First, they are alike because but they are different because of. Secondly, one is while the other is. Last, they are alike because and different because. See resources! Nancy Hennessy M.Ed. 12

13 Words, sentences, discourse structures??? Which words will precisely express what I mean? Struggling writers may have difficulty accessing more diverse vocabulary, world knowledge. What kind of sentence do I need to express what I mean-phrases, clauses? Struggling writers tend to use simplistic or repetitive sentence structures. What paragraph types, cohesive ties, signal words will I need to use? Struggling writers often lack knowledge of different discourse structures. How do we communicate meaning in writing? Word Parts of speech Phrase Noun Verb Preposition Dependent Clause Independen t Simple Compound Sentence Complex s Compound complex Text Narrative Expository Cohesive ties Can you relate. Time Relevant & Stimulating Topics Word & World Knowledge Problems!!!! One way to resolve these dilemmas for older students or students with higher level writing skills is to integrate writing instruction with content area learning. Troia & Maddox, 2004 Nancy Hennessy M.Ed. 13

14 Reading and Writing are connected as they draw upon common knowledge and cognitive processes. Reading and writing are complementary processes that can be used to strengthen each other in reciprocal fashion. Can you think of some examples of shared processes and skills??? Reading is a multifaceted skill, gradually acquired over years of instruction and practice. Nancy Hennessy M.Ed. 14

15 Instructional Tools.. Have students write about the text they read respond to text write summaries take notes create or respond to written questions Average effect sizes for overall recommendations Teach students the writing skills and processes that go into creating texts spelling sentences paragraphs Increase how much students write The greatest benefit that reading holds for poor writers is that it provides vivid examples of text and discourse features that the writer needs to master. Shanahan, 2009 Some other advantages for the writer. Literacy strategies that are taught in the context of English Language Arts curriculum do not not spontaneously generalize to expository contexts. Struggling readers and writers need a context that supports flexible ways to use structure and strategies to respond to changing demands of text books, primary sources and other documents. Nancy Hennessy M.Ed. 15

16 Writing requires that we.. Plan, generate ideas, & organize Review, revise and edit Working memory Long term memory Executive function Translate ideas and produce written language Use transcription skills Strands of writing competency Revising skills. Review Revise Edit Struggling revisers generally spend very little time revising and focus on superficial alterations such as changing word and phrase selections and editing mechanical errors. Skilled writers engage in extensive evaluation and revision using multiple processes such as critical reading, problem solving, text production Nancy Hennessy M.Ed. 16

17 Broader understanding of revision MacArthur, 2007 revision can include changes before, during and after writing. revising requires skills involved in reading comprehension (Hayes, 1996). good writers have eye and ear for good writing and are metacognitive. struggling writers have limited conceptions of revising and purposes for writing. The skilled reviser task schema- focuses on meaning rather than surface features. critical reading-develops a macrostructure for text revision dependent on comprehension monitoring skills. problem solving-compares intended text to actual text and identifies changes needed. memory resources-reflects on topic knowledge & audience awareness. Nancy Hennessy M.Ed. 17

18 Revision-Focus on Meaning! organization elaboration clarification of ideas Coherence! Revision Conferences Examples of Writing Revision Checklists. Examine paper to see if it makes sense. I ve read my paper out loud. Each sentence and the whole paper makes sense. No words have been omitted. I ve combined sentences that are too short and broken up ones that are too long. Ask if you said what you meant. My ideas are clear and related to the topic. The order of my ideas is logical. See Resources The Reviser s Job MacArthur, Schwartz & Graham, 1991 Read the paper and make notes or listen as writer reads the paper. Tell what the writer what think the paper was about and what your liked best. Ask questions about parts that are not clear. Provide your suggestions for making the paper better. Share the revised paper. Nancy Hennessy M.Ed. 18

19 Editing Checklist-Basic Skills COPS Capitalization Overall appearance Punctuation Spelling Schumaker et al, 1981 SCOPE Spelling Capitals Organization Punctuation Express complete sentence Vaughn & Bos, 2009 Formal Edit after Revise.. 1. I reread my paper and checked for errors. 2. I started all sentences with a capital. 3. I ended all sentences with a period, question mark. 4. I checked for misspelled words. 5. I used commas where needed. 6. I indented my paragraphs. 7. I checked for complete sentences. 8. All of my sentences make sense. Mather & Wendling, 2009 Individualize! The Editor s Job Check the writer s papers for: Sentence Capitalization Punctuation Spellings Share your suggestions with the writer. Nancy Hennessy M.Ed. 19

20 POWER-Explanations PLUS Englert, Raphael & Anderson, 1991 Plan-plan for writing Identify topic, who will read it, establish purpose, brainstorm ideas for explaining the topic and group into relevant categories. Organize-develop text structure that categorizes and organizes ideas Identify what is being explained, needed materials, organize explanation, what comes first, second, third, last. POWER (continued) Write-Use the text structure map as a guide for writing first draft. Add introduction, conclusion, details, key words, examples. Think-sheet different colors Edit-involves peer editing, use think sheet as a guide, reflect on first draft, identify favorite parts, parts that need work and questions to discuss with peer editor. Revise-Use think sheet, list editing suggestions, star revisions, and generate ideas to make paper more interesting. Check it out! Writing Process Checklist Graham & Harris, 2005 See resources Nancy Hennessy M.Ed. 20

21 A few words on technology tools. word processing spell checking word prediction speech recognition concept mapping multimedia Word processing-revision using word processing, in combination with writing instruction, has a moderate positive impact on the quality of student writing especially for struggling writers. different meta analyses have found positive effects on the length and quality of compositions for low achieving students. Need typing instruction to use word processing effectively. Nancy Hennessy M.Ed. 21

22 In other areas, research is not as robust so proceed with caution. word prediction-students with severe spelling problems. speech recognition-high school students with LD. planning software-shows promise but limited research. multimedia, internet research etc.- qualitative studies. Technology applications by themselves are not necessarily effective. The effects depend.how technology is combined with teaching methods designed to take advantage of the tools power. Remember these students? Struggle with generating topics and ideas. Planning is problematic. Difficulty organizing ideas. Texts are short and poorly structured. Sentence style is simple and repetitive. Use of language e.g. syntax, vocabulary, cohesion problematic. Frequent errors in spelling and mechanics. Difficulty-making transitions from one step to next in writing process. Lack inner voice to mediate language production. Overwhelmed by tasks. Characteristics of Struggling Writers Nancy Hennessy M.Ed. 22

23 Teaching Learning Triangle. Instructional approaches, programs & materials Educators knowledge of research and best practices Informed Writing Instruction Students levels of performance Nancy Hennessy M.Ed. 23

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