SERBO-CROA TIAN 47. ,jj 5" 1

Transcription

1 SERBO-CROA TAN 47,jJ ':1. ' 5" 1.,. region, upper Walio (Leonhard Schultze) River. A few also near Akiapmin south of the Central Range. Walio: 145 speakers in East Sepik Province. Watakataui: also called Waxe. 350 speakers in East Sepik Province, on a branch of the middle Korosameri River, two villages. The people are highly bilingual in Tok Pisin. Watam: also called Marangis. 380 speakers in Madang and East Sepik Provinces, near the mouth of the Ramu River. Wogamusin: also called Wongamusin. 700 speakers in East Sepik Province, Ambunti district, four villages. Many Tok Pisi~ sr..eakers.some young people learning English. Yau1:8i5 speakers in East Sepik Province. Related languages: Langam, Mongol. Yawiyo: also called Yabio. 100 speakers in Sandaun Province, 10 miles east of Duranmin, three villages. 7% lexical similariry- with Papi. Most use Saniyo-Hiyowe as second language. Yelogu: also called Kaunga, Buiamanambu. 230 speakers in East Sepik Province, one village in Ambunti district. Yerakai: also called Yerekai. 390 speakers in East Sepik Province, Ambunti district, southeast near government_sta- ~.: "-::~~. :~~=:.-,c_' '- "YeSsal1~Mayo: also called Mayo-Yesan, Maio-Yesan, Yasyin, Yesan;', 1;600 speakers in East Sepik Province, 'Ambunti district; Sandaun Province, Wan Wan division, south of Mehek, ten villages. Dialects are Yawu (Yau, Yaw, Warasai), Mayo- Yessan. Yetfa: 'also called Biksi, Biaksi, nisine. 1,200 speakers in Papua, ndonesia, and Papua New Guinea. n Papua, ndonesia: 1,000 speakers in Jayawijaya kabupaten, Okbibab kecamatan, border area east and north of the Sogber River, many villages south of Gunung. Yetfa and Biksi are two ethnic groups, speaking the same language. Trade language in the area, extending to Papua New Guinea border. n Papua New Guinea: 200 speakers south of the Green River, and into Papua. Yimas: 300 speakers in East Sepik Province, near Chambri, Arafundi River, middle Karawari River. Related language: Karawari. B. GRMES SERBO-CROATAN. This South Slavic language has multiple standardized forms; it is most closely related to Slovenian, and less closely related to Bulgarian and Macedonian. Of the succe~sor states to Yugoslavia, Croatian uses standard Croatian, Serbia and Montenegro use standard Serbian, and Bosnia- Hercegovina employs standard Bosnian and the other two as well. Speakers total over seventeen million. For standard references, see Meillet and aillant 1969, Naylor 1980, Browne 1993, and Kordic There are three main dialect groups: Cakavian and Kajkavian are now spoken in relatively small areas, in the west and north of Croatia, respectively, while Stokavian predominates elsewhere. ts three subdialects, kavian, Ekavian, and jekavian, are named according to their treatment of the Common Slavic vowel *e; thus the word 'child' is dite,,dete, and dijete, respectively. (n short syllables, the jek. reflex isje: gdje 'where'.) kavian is found mainly in western regions; Ekavian in most of Serbia; and jekavian in the western part of 'Serbia, Montenegro, most of Bosnia and Hercegovina, arid'much of Croatia. Ekavian is the basis of standard Serbian, with Belgrade as its center (older term: "eastern variant of Serbo-Croatian"), though some writers and many Montenegrins write Serbian using jekavian spellings.-serbian traditionally prefers Cyrillic script, but the Latin alphabet is now frequently used as well. jekavian is the foundation of standard Croatian, whose focal point is Zagreb (older term: "western variant"), and also of standard Bosnian. Croatian and Bosnian use Latin sqript almost exclllsivety:-" "The standards differ too in iexis: different wordsaretised 'for some everyday items, and in scholarly vocabuary. There are fewer borrowings in Croatian, predominantly from German, Latin, and Czech, and correspondingly more calques and neologisms. Borrowing is more common in Serbian and Bosnian, from Turkish, Greek, Russian, Church Slavic, and recently also from French and English. Most of the differences are a matter of frequency of usage. The status of the standards has, since around 1900, been sensitive, because of the cultural and political implications. Shared features and the ease of mutual comprehension suggest one language with two main varieties, but since 1991 few advocate a joint standard, and the very term "Serbo-Croatian" is disfavored. This article presents jekavian (standard Croatian and Bosnian) and Ekavian (Serbian) in the Latin alphabet. 1. Writing system. The original Church Slavic alphabet was Glagolitic (9th century). Eastern Orthodox Slavdom, including Serbia, adopted the later' Cyrillic for church as well as the first vernacular documents (12th century on). n Catholic Croatia, Glagolitic survived, but Latin script gradually prevailed (14th-19th centuries). Bosnia has used Cyrillic (graphically modified), Latin, and Arabic letters. n his Serbian dictionary of 1818, uk Karadzic ( ) introduced a simplified version of Cyrillic, which was finally adopted despite great initial opposition. The equivalent reform for the Latin alphabet was carried out slightly later by Ljudevit Gaj (1809-

2 48 SERBO-CROA TAN TABLE 1. The Alphabets of Serbo-Croatian Latin Cyrillic Latin Cyrillic A a A a L A A B b E 6 Lj j Jb Jb C C U Q M m M M C C Y q N n H H C C 11 h Nj nj -b tb D d A A Of dz ; ) P P n n D d 1) t) R r P p E e E e S s C c F f <> 1> S S ill G g r r T t T T H h X x U u Y y i 1 f v B B J J J J Z z 3 3 K k K K Z Z JK K 1872); both these men had a major influence on the development of the literary language. The modem alphabets are given together in Table 1, in the Latin order; the Cyrillic order is A, E, B, r,,n;,n, E, )K, 3, H, J, K, n, Th, M, H, lb, 0, n, P, C, T, n, Y, <P,X, U;, q, U, ll. The exact correspondence between the two alphabets makes transliteration automatic; spelling follows pronunciation with unusual consistency. 2. Phonology. Serbo-Croatian's inventory of segmental phonemes is small by Slavic standards (cf. Gvozdanovi6 1980); t has twenty-five consonants, shown in Tabk 2;]; which js trilled, can be syllabic, as in trg 'square':ticaddition, there is a straightforward five-vowel system,)~e a 0 u. owels are long or short; one vowel in a word is accented, with either a rising or a falling tone TABLE 3. Serbo-Croatian Accentuation Accented Syllables Falling Tone Rising Tone Unaccented Syllables Long - Short \\ contour. The,Se prosodic features are transcribed Table 3. as in The accent symbols are used mainly in reference works; we shall include them when discussing morphology. Certain morphological oppositions depend on the accentual system; there are few minimal pairs like grad 'city', grm 'hail' and pas 'belt', ptls 'dog'. The distribution of tone, length, and accent is restricted. n the 15th century, Stokavian moved the accent one syllable closer to the beginning of the word; hence accent now does not occur word-finally, except in monosyllables and in some recent borrowings. The "rising" and "falling" tones are more complex phonetically than those terms imply (rising = high pitch extending into the next syllable; cf. Lehiste and vi6 1986), and considerable variation exists among speakers. 3. Morphology. Serbo-Croatian has seven cases, two numbers, and three genders. Table 4 shows the main noun declensions. The morphology is predominantly fusional; gender correlates strongly with declensional class. The vocatiye involves aputation of consonants for many masculine nouns: drug' comrade', voc.sg. drf1ze, a result,of-the ~- Slavic first palatalization. The Slavic second palatalization is also well preserved, as in the nom. p. of masculirie. TABLE 2. Serbo-Croatian Consonants (Orthographic Representation) Labial Dental Alveolar Palato-Alveolar Palatal elar Stops oiceless p t k oic-ed b d g Affricates oiceless c C C oiced dz d Fricatives oiceless f s S h oiced v z z Nasals m n nj Lateral j ibrant r Semivowel

3 SERBO-CROA TAN 49 TABLE 4. Serbo-Croatian Nominal Declension Masc. Neuter a-stem o-stem o-stem i-stem Singular Nom. iena zakon selo stvilr 'woman' 'law' 'village' 'thing' oc. no zakone selo stvilri Ace. ienu zakon selo stvilr Gen. iene zakona sela stvilri Dat. ieni zakonu selu stvari nst. zenom zakonom selom stvilrju. stvilri Loc zeni zakonu selu stvari Plural Nom. zene zakoni s't?la stvilri oc. z"'ene zakoni s't?/a stvari Ace. iene zakone s't?/a stvari Gen. ibw zakona seta stvarf Dat. zenama zakonima s't?lima stvarima nst. zenama zakonima s't?/ima stvarima Loc. zenama zakonima s't?lima stvarima TABLE 5. "Serb6-Croatian Conjugation Types Conju- 11Conju- ill Congation gation jugation (-a-) (-f-) (-e-) nfinitive gled.ati nositi tristi 'to look' 'to carry' 'to shake' Present Singular glediim nosfm trisem 2 glediis nosfs trises 3 gledii nosf trise Plural 1 glediimo nosfmo trisemo 2 glediite nosfte trisete 3 gledajil nose trisil mperative Singular 2 glediij nasi trisi Plural glediijmo nosimo irisimo 2 glediijte nosite trisite TABLE 6. Formsof the Serbo-CroatianPastParticiple Masculine Feminine Neuter Singular znl}o«znal) znl}la znl}lo Plural znl}li inl}le znl}la nouns, for example, zzlozi from zzlog 'shop window'. The innovative mutation in syllable coda also affects nominal paradigms: p~peo 'ash', gen. sg. p~pela. Genitive/accusative syncretism is found with masculine animate nouns in the singular. The major innovation in the nominal paradigms is the gen. p. -a for most nouns. As the first noun in Table 4 shows, the length and tone of the accented syllable may change within a paradigm; the position of the accent may also move. Almost all nouns are declined. Even vowel-final borrowings like bzr6 'office', gen. sg. biroa decline, unless they are feminine. By contrast, most numerals are now indeclinable. A multi-tense system of verbal morphology is in the process of oeing replaced by one in which aspect has a central role. The main conjugations can be classified by the vowel-n"the present tense forms; see Table 5. The Tsg. -m"has spread from a handful of verbs to all except mogu ' can' and hotu or tu ' want'. (Subject personal pronouns are normally omitted unless under contrastive or emphatic stress.) Before noting the remaining simple tenses, we must consider aspect. n broad outline, the aspectual system of Serbo-Croatian is similar to that of Russian. n terms of morphology, perfectives are typically derived from imperfectives by prefixation, and inlperfectives from perfcxtives"fiysuffiicitlon. l!j.semantics, the perfective views a situati n)~ a single whql~, wb.ile the imperfective.. iews it as having internal constituency. Unlike Russian, however, Serbo-Cro~tian forms a present tense from perfective verbs, distinct from the future; this has a range of uses, but is not employed for events occurring at the moment of speech. The two remaining simple tenses are the imperfect and the aorist; the former indicates action in process in the past, while the latter is normally used for a completed single action in the past. Both are particularly used for events witnessed by the speaker. Not surprisingly, given their meanings, the imperfect is formed only from imperfective verbs, and the aorist usually from perfectives. However, as part of the growing importance of the aspectual opposition, both tenses are being supplanted by a compound past tense, particularly in Serbia and Croatia. t employs the past participle of the verb, which agrees with the subject in gender and number; this is illustrated in Table 6 with the verb zn{}ti 'to know'. The other element of the compound past is the present tense forms of byti 'to be', which are enclitic. (There are also full forms, used for emphasis and in questions.) f there is no other word preceding, the participle stands before the enclitic; see Table 7. The past tense can be formed from the verbs of both aspects: {Pfsala, Nap(sala} je p(smo 'She {was writing / wrote} a letter'. There are also an infrequently used pluperfect tense, a conditional, and (mainly in the western

4 --~~- - ~ -ffi ~ ~J. 50 SERBO-CROA TAN TABLE 7. Compound Past Tense in Serbo-Croatian. The table uses the verb znllti 'to know' as an example. Singular Plural zn(}o. zn(}la sam zn(}o. zn(}la si zn(}o, zn(}la. zn(}loje zn(}li. zn(}le smo zn(}li. zn(}le ste zn(}li. zn(}le. zn(}la su variety) a past conditional. Unlike other compound tenses, the future tense is formed with the present tense of jek. htj~tilek. ht~ti 'to want' (usually in its enclitic forms) is an auxiliary plus the infinitive, for example, Zena ee znllti 'The woman will know'. t too is formed with verbs of both aspects. 4. Syntax. Serbo-Croatian enclitics are familiar to many linguists because of the problems they have posed for transformational theory (Browne 1974). Enclitics stand in second position in a clause. There are six "slots," and each may be occupied by one enclitic: (6) Taj mi je pisac napisao pismo. that to.me() is() writer written letter 'That writer wrote me a letter.' () nterrogative particle: li (n) erbal auxiliaries: sam, si, smo, ste, su (notje); eu, A second point of syntactic interest is the replacement ees, ee, eemoj. Cete, ee; bih, bi, bi, bismo, biste, bi of infinitives, which occurs mainly in the east and is a (T) Dative pronouns: Singular mi, ti, mu, joj (reflexive Balkan areal feature. The infinitive is most likely to be si in west only); plural nam, vam, im replaced when the meaning is that of purpose. Thus () Genitive pronouns: Singular me, te, ga, je; plural examples like this occur freely in all standards: nas, vas, ih () Accusative pronouns: identical to the genitive pronouns with the addition of the reflexive se and of (7) Jovan je dosao da kupi knjigu. is come that buys book ju ---~ -"Jovan came to buy a book.' () 3sg. form of biti: je Consider the following examples: (1) Gdje ste me vidjeli? (ljek., Cro.! Bos.) Gde ste me videli? (Ek., Serb.) where are(encl.) me(encl.)seen 'Where did you see me?' (2) ielim mu ih dati. wish to.him() them() to.give ' wish to give them to him.' (3) Nasao ga je. found it() is()' 'He found it.' f the combination se je is expected, thenje is dropped; but this rule is not absolute in Cro. The combination *je je is replaced by ju je, for example, Znao ju je 'He knew her' (lit. 'knew her[] is[]'). The notion of "second" position is complex. Clitics regularly stand after the first accented constituent: (4) Taj pisac mi je napisao pismo. 'That writer wr,ote me a letter.' An initial constituent may be discounted: (5) Ove godine, taj pisac mi je napisao pismo. 'This year, that writer wrote me a letter.' Surprisingly, enclitics may come after the first accented word within a phrase: ~ Both infinitival and replacement constructions occur with verbs like jek. zeljeti,ek. ieleti 'to wish'; but in the west, the infinitive is more usual, and in the east its replacement is more common. n the east, the construc- --- tion with da has spread into the ordinary future: Jovan ee da kupi knjigu 'Jovan will buy a book'. The infinitive becomes rarer as one moves eastward. view of the problems discussed, it is not surprising that SC data have figured in various theoretical debates, and that the language is also of special interest to those concerned with issues of language planning. [See also Slavic Languages.] BmLOGRAPHY Browne, Wayles On the problem of enclitic placement in Serbo-Croatian. n Slavic transformational syntax, edited by Richard D. Brecht and Catherine. Chvany, pp

5 SffiERAN LANGUAGES 51 "L Ann Arbor: Dept. of Slavic Languages, University of Michigan. Browne, Wayles Serbo-Croat. n The Slavonic languages, edited by Bemard Comrie and Greville G. Corbett, pp London: Routledge. Gvozdanovic, Jadranka Tone and accent in Standard Serbo-Croatian, with a synopsis of Serbo-Croatian phonology. ienna: Osterreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Kordic, Snjezana Serbo-Croatian. (Languages of the world/materials, 148.) Munich: Lincom Europa. Lehiste,. llse, and Pavle vic Word and sentence prosody inserbo-croatian. (Current studies in linguistics series, 13.) Cambridge, Mass.: MT Press. Meillet, Antoine, and Andre aillant Grammaire de la langue serbo-croate. 2d ed. Paris: Champion. Naylor, Kenneth E Serbo-Croatian. n The Slavic literary languages: Formation and development, e~ited by Alexander M. Schenker and Edward Stankiewicz, pp New Haven: Yale Conciliumon nternational and Area Studies. GRELLE G. CORBETT AND WAYLES BROWNE SERAL ERB. See Clause and Pidgins and Creoles. SEX AND LANGUAGE. See Sociolinguistics. SmERAN LANGUAGES. This entry concerns the languages spoken in that part of the Eurasian land mass situated east of the Ural Mountains and north of the steppes, the Altay and adjacent mountain ranges, and the Amur River. (This follows the usual sense of "Siberia" in English; the Russian term excludes the eastern part.) This vast expanse does not form a single cultural area in the traditionill sense, but in recent times, a marked homogenization has set in with the spread of ethnic Russians and the Russian language. ery few large areas are like the Tuva Republic in having a majority of indigenous inhabitants. At a more local level, however, there have been numerous instarices of close contact between groups speaking genetically unrelated or distantly related languages. ndeed, Russian is only the last of a series of languages that have penetrated Siberia. For geographical distributions of languages, see Map 1. Most of the recent primary literature on languages of 'Siberia is in Russian, but Comrie 1981 provides a general introduction to the area.. Previously, Turkic languages had entered the area. olga Tatar was the main entrant in the pre-russian period, and there are still large pockets of Tatar speakers in southwestern Siberia. Turkic languages form the western part of the southern fringe of Siberia, with varieties of Mongolian farther east; and one Turkic language, Yakut, moved north to occupy the middle course of the Lena River. Dolgan is closely related to Yakut but shows a strong Tungusic substrate. n western Siberia, there are a number of uratc languages, whose speakers originally migrated east from their homeland to the west of the Ural Mountains:!(hanry (Ostyak) and Mansi (ogul) form the Ob-Ugiic branch of Uralic. To their north are the Northern Samoyedic languages Nenets (Yurak Samoyed), Enets (Yenisey Samoyed), and Nganasan (Tavgi Samoyed), and to.the_south, the Southern Samoyedic'language Selkup (Ostyak Samoyed). n the extreme east, the Eskimo (Siberian Yupik) population on the eastern tip of Siberia represents a remigration from Alaska back into Siberia. Eastern Siberia, with the exception of the Chukotka and Kamchatka peninsulas and ~~ Yakut area, is dominated by Tungusic languages, which formerly spread as far as Manchuria, and which still occupy some of the area to the south of the Amur River and on northern Sakhalin. There are two good recent accounts oftungusic languages in English: Nedjalkov 1997 and Nikolaeva n addition to these languages, which belong to well established families or widely accepted stocks-and which for the most part (i.e. with the exception of Tungusic) are relatively recent arrivals in Siberia-a number of Siberian languages have no widely established genetic relations with languages outside Siberia. They are referred to collectively as Paleo-Siberian (or, in Soviet literature, Paleo-Asiatic) languages; however this term is defined negatively as "not belonging to any established family," rather than as an indication of genetic affiliation. A recent survey is Plank and Maslova The Chukotko- Kamchatkan languages, spoken in the peninsulas of Chukotka and Kamchatka, constitute a small, well-established family, consisting of Chukchi, Koryak, Kerek, Alutor, and Kamchadal (telmen). Kamchadal is the most aberrant member of the family. Characteristic of this family, especially of Chukchi and Koryak, is a dominant/recessive vowel harmony system based on vowel height: the dominant vowels e Cl0 pair with recessive i e u respectively (with e in both series). f any morpheme in a word contains a dominant vowel, all recessive vowels must be lowered to the corresponding dominant vowel-e.g. Chukchi kupre 'net', but gakopra-