LIN 204, English Grammar Final Review Package

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1 LIN 204, English Grammar Final Review Package Chapter 7 Syntax Sentence can be divided into subject (NP) and predicate (VP). Phrases: sequences of words that form a syntactic unit Constituents: parts or components from which sentences are structured -NP -Predicate Constituents: -MVP (will be discussed in detailed) -ADJP -ADVP, to make sure if it is an ADVP; try to substitute a related Adv. and move it after the V. -PP=Prep. + NP; can function as Adv. or Adj. -Tree Diagram for the Whole Sentence On Sunday, the children across the street were very happy when I invited them to jump in the sprinkler. Every sentence S has these four parts NP VP the children across the street PP on Sunday ADJP very happy SC when I invited MVP were Notice that there are actually two PP in the sentence, [across the street] and [on Sunday]. How to tell whether the PP is under NP or VP? Look at the meanings. [across the street] describes where the children s were [on Sunday] describes when the event (Verb) happened

2 -Main Verb Phrase: A MVP always consists of MV and Aux. (if any) MV has to be a finite verb: verbs that can be inflected for tense -The Basic Structure of the MVP MVP AUX. MV TENSE present/ past Modal HAVE {-en} BE {-ing} -Time, Tense and Aspect: In English, there are only two tenses: present and past, no future tense Time: we have past, present and future Aspect: we have progressive (on going), perfect (done) and perfect-progressive 1. Simple tenses - Simple present - Can express a future, present time - Can also express a habitual action - Simple past - To express a future time? - present tense + adverb (tomorrow) - modal will - be going to 2. Perfect tenses - Present perfect - express a single event that was completed in the immediate past - a single event began in the past and continues into present

3 - Past perfect B A NOW Past perfect Simple past - Future perfect NOW A B Future perfect Simple present 3. Progressive Forms - present - past - future 4. Perfect Progressive Forms - Present A NOW Present perfect-progressive - Past A B NOW Past perfect-progressive Simple past - Future NOW A B Future perfect-progressive Simple present

4 -AUX. and Their Meanings: - Modal shows the speaker s attitude toward what he/she is saying - Modal always takes present tense - Memorize the table on Page 197 -Indicative, Imperative and subjunctive mood: - In daily conversation and writings, we use indicative mood mostly - Imperative: strong command - Subjunctive: contrary to the facts or that follow certain verbs expressing wishes or weak command; when you see the following, you may need to consider using subjunctive mood: - If + past tense - wish + past tense - command like Chapter 5,6 Structure-Class Words Structure-Class Words are also structure words or function words; they have grammatical meaning. -Determiner Determiner is a structure word that precedes and modifies Noun -Difference between determiner and adj. -1 determiner has no derivational suffix -2 determiner has no comparative or superlative form -3 determiner doesn t fit in the frame sentence: The man seems very. -Different types of determiners: -Articles (definite (the), indefinite (a/an)) -Demonstratives -Numbers (cardinal, ordinal) -Quantifiers -Indefinites -Possessive *Notice that definite article, demonstratives and possessives imply definiteness. Possessives, indefinites, demonstratives and cardinal numbers can function as pronoun.

5 -Pronoun Pronouns are NP substitutes Antecedent is the NP that gives the pronoun meaning -Different types of pronouns: -Personal (subject, object); **hypercorrection -Reflexive -Reciprocal -Indefinite; **number agreement problem -possessive pronoun -demonstrative -cardinal number -Qualifiers Qualifiers usually precede adj. or adv. to increase or decrease the quality signified by the words that they modify -Difference between qualifier and adv. -1 qualifier cannot be qualified -2 qualifier has no comparative or superlative form -3 qualifier doesn t fit in the frame sentence: The man told his story. -4 qualifier has no mobility -Aux. Aux. can either signal that the MV is coming or serve as a substitute for the VP -Different types of Aux.: -Modal -Have -Do -Be -Prep. Preposition always followed by a NP signals the relationship between the NP and another phrase Ambiguity may arise because PP can modify both NP and the predicate -Difference between verb particle and prep. and adv. -1 Verb particle forms meaning with verb

6 -2 the meaning of the verb particle usually is not predictable -3 if you can omit the element, this means that it is an adverb. However, if you cannot omit it, it can still be an adv. -Conjunctions Conjunctions joining two grammatical structures -Coordinate Conjunctions [and, but, or, so, yet, for, nor] Correlative occurs in pairs in order to conjoin similar grammatical unit -Punctuation rules: -1 in conjoined sentences, a comma precedes the coordinator -2 if sentences are short, comma is optional -3 no comma needed if not joining two sentences - Conjunctive adv. -Difference between Conjunctive adv. and adv. -1 conjunctive adv. has logical link to preceding sentence - Subordinating Conjunctions Subordinating Conjunction creates complex sentences -Properties: -main clause can come before or after the SC -conjunction must appear at the front of the SC Comma splice happens when two independent sentences are joined solely by a comma Run-on sentence is two sentences conjoined together without any punctuation or conjunction -Relatives Relative Pronouns: who, whom, whose, which (non-human), that (human or non-human) Relative Adverb: where, when, why Restrictiveness: we say the relative clause is restricted when the clause is isolated by commas Adjacency: an important property of relatives; the relative clause should directly follow the NP (antecedent)

7 -Interrogatives -The interrogative almost has the same members as relative, except how is also a member of interrogative adverb -But notice that there is no antecedent before an interrogative in a sentence -*Homophony When there are two or more function words having the same form we called they are homophonous E.g. give up [particle] up the hill [prep.] Chapter 4 Form-Class Words Form-class words are content words with lexical meaning in them Form is the physical shape of the word pronunciation and spelling Function is the way words behave in context Lexicons: are the mental dictionaries inside our brain Semantic feature refers to the elements of meaning (e.g. human or non-human) while grammatical feature is the features that influence the grammatical choices - Noun Tests and Noun Subclasses 1. Form: a. derivational morpheme b. plural {-s} and possessive {-s} 2. Function a. it can directly follow an article b. it fits in the frame sentence: (The) seem(s) all right. Prototypical nouns are nouns that always function as nouns Gerund are nouns that have a form of a verb but function as a noun; they always end with {-ing} Common nouns are common names; they can be divided into count nouns and non-count nouns Proper nouns are names of specific persons, events and places; they first letter is always capital -Verb and Verb Tests -Not all the words that express action is verb -Verbs can also denote states and conditions

8 -Nouns can be easily used as verbs (functional shift (discussed in ch.3)) 1. Form: a. derivational morpheme b. inflectional morphemes: {-ed}, {-ing} 2. Function a. it can be made into command b. it can be made negative c. it fits in the frame sentence: They must (it)/good. -Functions -Adjective Modification: the modifier differentiates one member from all other members of the same class Notice that not only adj. but also noun, participle phrase, PP, adv. can be a modifier as well -Tests 1. Form: a. derivational morpheme b. inflectional morphemes: {-er}, {-est} 2. Function a. if not (1b), adj. can come after more/most b. can be qualified c. it fits in the frame sentence: The men seems very. -Subclasses Gradable: can arrange them on the scale of intensity Non-Gradable adj. usually fails most of the adj. tests Attributive adj. comes before NP while predictive adj. comes after v. -Functions -Adverbs Adverbs can modify v. /adj. /adv. and the whole sentence -Subclasses (types) Manner, time, place, degree, frequency, duration -Tests 1. Form a. adverb-making morphemes: {-ly} b. inflectional morphemes: {-er}, {-est} 2. Function a. if not (1b), can come after more/most b. move within a sentence c. it fits in the frame sentence: The man told his story.

9 Chapter 3 Morphology morpheme the smallest meaningful unit Free affixes (bound) must attach to a base can be divided in two ways two special cases of morphemes derivational to create new words inflectional signal grammatical relationship {-s}x3, {-ed}, {-en}, {-ing}, {-er}, {-est} allomorph different form, same meaning homophonous same form, different meaning vowel alternation zero allomorph suppletion Functional shift is the process of converting one part of speech into another without changing its basic form Compound word is a single word that made of two words Extension happens when referring to more categories than it did originally, the opposite is called narrowing Good luck on your exams