When we analyse a sentence, we look at the syntactic function of each sentence element.

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1 Grammar Period 3 What to Learn? Everything from Period 1 and Period 2: Word Classes Tenses Passive What else? Sentence Analysis Chapter 4: Sentence elements Chapter 14: Kunnen Chapter 15: Mogen Chapter 16: Moeten Chapter 21: The noun (1) Chapter 22: The noun (2) Sentence Analysis When we analyse a sentence, we look at the syntactic function of each sentence element. Subject The subject is the person, thing or animal about whom or which something is said. This can also be a complete clause (everything in front of verb) Provisional subject : Er there. To find the subject, omit there. Formal subject : it Verb Lexical : can form a predicator on its own, mostly last verb in sentence (with group of verbs) Auxiliary : do not take do or did when turned into a question or negative Semi-aux. : semi-aux + to + infinitive. They do take do or did when in a question or negative Linking : links subject to subject complement Subject complement extra information on subject, what the subject is or becomes. The table is blue He is my brother Predicator (main) verb, does not have to be lexical. Predicate everything but the subject. Adverbial The adverbial gives information about where, why, when, under what circumstances, to what degree, etc. He shut the door carefully. She sings well. He has always been a good friend to us. They can often be left out without making the sentence ungrammatical. Yesterday I met him at the station. I met him. Also they can usually occupy more than one position in a sentence. It is probably true./ Probably it is true./ It is true, probably.

2 Object Direct object : what does [the subject] [predicator]? The thing that is affected by the action of the subject Formal dir. object : it. Mostly used in idiomatic expressions: do it! Indirect object : takes to/for/of He asked me a favour Mum sold him the bike (a favour direct obj.; me indirect obj.) (the bike direct obj.; him indirect obj.) Object compliment extra information about the direct object, what the object is or becomes They knocked him unconscious She painted the table blue Chapter 14 Kunnen Ability in the present Can : usual, informal She can play the piano, we cannot type fast. Be able to : more formal, less usual, in staat zijn tot We are not able to deliver on time. Ability in the past Could, was/were able to : in general ability As a child I could/was able to swim very well Was/were able, managed : particular situation Two prisoners were able to/managed to escape. Could, was/were able to : particular situation, but negative Two prisoners could not/were not able to escape. Ability in the future Will/would be able to : ability in present future and past future I hope I will be able to help. He said he would be able to help. Ability in the perfect tense Present perfect tense: have/has been able to I have not been able to help him Past perfect tense: had been able to They had not been able to rescue him Unrealised ability We had the ability but we did not do it: could have/would have been able to If you had asked us, we could/would have been able to help you. To express ability but criticise/suggest: could have/might have You could have/might have warned me!

3 Ability in the infinitive (be able to) Can has no infinitive we use be able to Request (could) Zou kunnen, express a request could General possibility (can) Kan/kunnen, express something that is possible in general can Specific possibility (may/could/might) Kunnen, specific case, present tense may Past tense could or might Questions only could Less strong possibility than may may/could Had better Kunnen + beter, strong advice had better + infinitive Chapter 15 Mogen Permission in the present (may/can/could/be allowed to) Formal May to Could Informal Can To ask permission: may/can/could To give permission: may/can When rules made by somebody else: be allowed to you are allowed to vote when you are 18. Refusing permission: may not/cannot Permission in the past (be allowed to/could) Express permission: be allowed to Indirect speech: could we asked if we could smoke. Permission in the future (will be allowed to) Express permission: will be allowed to Permission in the perfect tense (have/has/had been allowed to) To talk about permission: have/has/had been allowed to Might/could have Had mogen, a suggestion or reproach, express annoyance: might have/could have If + should Something could happen that is not very probable, in clauses of condition (bijzinnen met voorwaarde) if there should be any problems, warn me. Should it rain, we will stay home.

4 Chapter 16 Moeten Necessity/obligation in present (have to/must/need to) Have to formal Have got to informal When necessity or obligation comes from speaker: must/have to/need to I must stop smoking. When obligation or necessity comes from outsides : have to I have to stop smoking before the operation. Necessity/obligation in the past (had to/needed to) Express necessity or obligation: had to/needed to Only in indirect speech: must he said that we must wait. Necessity/obligation in the future (will have to/will need to) Express in the future: will have to/will need to Necessity/obligation in the perfect tense (have/had had to) Present perfect tense: have had to Past perfect tense: had had to Should/ought to Advice, suggestion or opinion on what is the right thing to do: ought is less frequent than should. Had moeten (should have/ought to have) Criticism for not having done the right thing: should have + past participle. You can also use ought to have + past participle, but it is used far less frequent. Niet hoeven Express that something is/was not necessary: have to/need In present tense need can be accompanied by do. Had niet hoeven, something was done but not necessary: need not have + past participle Must for logical conclusion Moeten used to express logical conclusion; something is certain or highly probable. They must have known this. Must not/mustn t It is used to indicate that it is wrong to do something or to tell people not to do something: must not. We must not overreact to terror.

5 Chapter 21 The Noun (1) 1. Plural noun when more than one Plural is used when the number is more than one. In Dutch this is not always the case. Tien jaar/uur/kilo ten years/hours/kilos Ze verloren het leven they lost their lives 2. Singular noun in combinations with a hyphen The singular is used when the noun is preceded by a number + hyphen A two-hour journey, a 50-euro banknote 3. Different words for men and women In few cases there are different words for men and women Actor actress; waiter waitress; prince princess; Chairman chairwoman; nephew niece; fiancé fiancée Words ending in person can be used in situation where it is preferred not to refer to gender. Spokesperson 4. One word for men and women In many jobs and positions, men and women are referred to by the same word Doctor nurse If desired, it can be expressed by putting male or female before the noun Female doctor, male nurse You can also put man or woman before the noun (far less frequent than male), in plural make both combinations plural Woman nurse, men doctors 5. Regular plurals The regular way is by adding s to the noun. Nouns ending in a vowel also take s. Books, employees, cameras, cars 6. Plural of nouns ending in a hissing sound When a noun ends in a hissing sound (-s, -sh, -ch, -x) the plural is made by adding es. Bus buses Dish dishes Box boxes 7. Plural of nouns ending in y When a noun ends in a consonant + y, the y changes to ie. Reply replies Company companies When y is preceded by a vowel, only s is added. Key keys Delay delays

6 8. Plural of nouns ending in o There is no clear rule for these nouns. You have to memorize them. Plural in es Plural in s Cargo cargoes euro euros studio studios Potato potatoes photo photos piano pianos Tomato tomatoes radio radios casino casinos Hero heroes video videos memo memos Negro Negroes disco discos zoo zoos Echo echoes embryo embryos kilo kilos Some nouns can have both kinds of plurals, the plural es is more common Mosquito mosquitoes/mosquitos 9. Plural of nouns ending in f The below stated nouns ending in f have plurals in ves Calf calves life lives wife wives Half halves loaf loaves wolf wolves Knife knives shelf shelves leaf leaves Thief thieves Only handkerchief and scarf take both fs or ves All other nouns ending in f form their plural in the regular way. 10. Plural of abbreviations and dates With abbreviations, the plural is formed by adding s. CEO CEOs TV TVs Dates add either s or s. 1980s/1980 s Chapter 22 The Noun (2) 1. Irregular plurals Man men Goose geese Tooth teeth Foot feet louse lice woman women mouse mice child children 2. Plural of nouns ending in is/-us/-um/-on A number of foreign nouns (Latin and Greek) have a plural form in es, -i or a. Basis bases crisis crises Stimulus stimuli aquarium aquaria Museum and album have regular plurals: museums, albums If medium means the person, it has a regular plural: mediums Data is originally the plural of datum, in modern English data can be used as a singular or plural. 3. Nouns having one form for singular and plural A number of nouns have only one form for both singular and plural. Sheep; deer; fish; series; species; means; barracks; works; headquarters; Japanese; Chinese; Vietnamese; Portuguese; Swiss; craft; spacecraft; aircraft

7 4. Nouns consisting of two equal parts Nouns consisting of two equal parts are always plural: their Dutch equivalents are singular. Jeans; spectacles; trousers; glasses; pants; knickers; tweezers Then these nouns are preceded by a/an or a number, pair of is used A new pair of trousers, two pairs of tweezers 5. Other nouns that are always plural Contents, police, people, cattle, customs, surroundings, proceeds, premises, damages, headquarters, staff, wages and savings are all plural. 6. Nouns that are always singular Information; furniture; progress; advice and business singular and uncountable. There is a plural of business when the shop or company is meant. 7. Nouns in ics Nouns ending in ics are singular When it means a science or school subject: economics, otherwise: economy 8. The United States/The Netherlands The United States is followed by a singular verb form The Netherlands and The United Nations can be followed by singular or plural verb form. 9. Collective nouns Nouns that refer to groups of people they can have either singular or plural verb forms. Football teams usually take plural forms. Plural forms are common when the group is seen as a collection of individual members. Singular forms are used when the groups is thought of as an impersonal unit. Plural? Relative pronoun: who. Prounouns: their. Singular? Relative pronoun: which. Pronouns: its. Army; band; bank; crew; family; class; ministry; team; union; committee; company 10. A number of + plural verb form After a number of a plural form is used. A number of firms are active in this field.