of subjects, languages and locations accommodation see strategies of accommodation additional language(s) English-based Creoles as 59 French as an 58 in French Guiana 68 Albina 48 alternation see code-switching Aluku in Apatou and Mayman 64 7, 94 community 80 1, 104 contact with French culture 86 contact with other population groups in the region 85 and the French state 86 and the gold rush 86 in Suriname 92 urbanization of population 93, 94 wars 84 Amerindians 55 dominant discourses about 173 languages 31, 43 and Maroons 177 nations 23 official views on 36 Apatou (Mutende) 6, 49, 94 linguistic situation of 64 7 Arawak 55 see Amerindian languages Asian languages 45 assimilation 25 see also Francization, integration attitudes 46 see also ideology Aukaan(ers) see Ndyuka/Nengee/Eastern Maroon Awala-Yalimapo 50 linguistic situation of 64 Balaté 49, 176 bilingual experimentation 31 borrowing first- and second-hand 202 3 interactional meaning of 203 boundaries (ethnic, social, linguistic) 315 Brazilian Portuguese 42 Businenge see Maroon 71, 78, 105, 111 Businenge Tongo see Nengee categorization processes 69, 336 see also processes of categorization Cayenne 39, 56 CELIA 2 Census/INSEE (French 1999) 29 Circulaire Savary 30 CNRS-IRD 2 code alternation see code-switching code-mixing 203, 273 4, 275 crutch-like 204 Democratic Republic of Congo case 275 meanings/functions of 274, 275, 278 9, 281 3 number of insertions in 275, 277 8 Rapa Nui case 274 types of lexical elements in 275 6 Zambian case 274 code-switching (code alternation) 46, 271 insertional 271 marked 279 81 meaning of 246 52 settings of 281 3 structural issues 271 2, 283 types of 271 colonial expeditions 23 colonial linguistics 112 communicational stopgap measure 237 8 community 35 see ethnic group -as-value 334 of practice 318 Takitaki as 318 19 constructivist approach 112 contact between varieties 322 blending of practices 323 levelling 323 354
of subjects, languages and locations 355 contact linguistics 326 contact settings 327 courtesy titles see variables creole continuum 319 criticism 320 5 Creoles of Suriname 136 see also English-based Creoles naming conventions for the 135 research on the 135 data analysis anthropological linguistics 330 bottom-up approach 163 discourse analytical approaches 330 ethnographic methods 326 interactional sociolinguistics 330 quantitative sociolinguistic approach 196, 325, 326 socio-cultural linguistic approaches 309, 330 sociology of language 330, 331 data collection elicitation 329 elicitation of views 260 field assistants 166 7 interviews (with Maroons) 260 interviews (with non-maroons) 167 interviews with children see sociolinguistic survey methods 331 naturalistic events 195 participant observation 259 sampling language use 40, 165 context of 260 semi-guided interviews see sociolinguistic survey and social class 166 and social networks 166 sociology of language-based survey spontaneous recordings 167, 184, 260 discursive simplification see strategies of accommodation diversity biodiversity (of French Guiana) 25 cultural 25, 28 linguistic 25, 28 in French Guiana 35, 41, 45 and the French state 28, 29 documentation of contact 335 Eastern Maroon community emergence of 78 (traditional) language ideology 132 Creoles see also Nengee intercommunity relationships 78 meaning of term 4, 78 educational context of western French Guiana 58 emic view 122 endolingual settings 306 English-based Creoles (of French Guiana)/ Créoles à base anglaise functions of practices 164 meaning of term 4, 43, 56, 136 naming practices for in French Guiana 136 views on 63, 133, 173, 177, 182, 190 educational language policies of French Guiana 41 erasure 316 ethnic/national groups (of French Guiana) 28, 35, 36 ethnicity 29, 36 and class in French Guiana 191 2 European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages 29, 30 and France 29, 30 European languages (in French Guiana) 44 European space centre 25 exolingual settings 234 foreigner talk 243 fractual recursivity 316 Francization 2, 86, 93 French as first language 58 as lingua franca 56 as second language 58 French Antillean Creoles see French-based Creoles French-based Creoles 26, 31, 43 French-Dutch-Ndyuka treaty 85 French Guiana/Guyane Française 23 eastern 26 linguistic landscape of 33, 41, 68 dominant discourse on 64 homogeneous ethnically defined communities or groups 35 mosaic 35, 36, 64 linguistic market of 61 migration in/to 53, 94 intra-regional 65 reasons for 103 types of immigrants 103, 182 overseas region (Département d Outre-Mer) 25 urbanization of 53, 54, 55, 68, 93, 103 western 26 French Guianese Creole 55 generational differences in use 67 as language of social integration 55 6
356 of subjects, languages and locations French Guianese Creole (cont.) as lingua franca 68 patterns of language use 67 population or families 36, 56 generalizing terms 141 gold mining 24 and the Surinamese government 91 gold rush first 24, 87, 90 second 91 Grand Santi 90 Haitians 55 historical linguistic research on creoles 324 Hmong 33, 93 hospital (multilingual context) 57 communication problems 57 linguistic background of the medical staff 57 8 identity construction 336 ideology 337 linguistic see also language ideologies, traditional see Nengee national 29, 36 socio-political, of France/nation-state 28 immigration to French Guiana 25 Indigenous Protest Movement 176 institutional interactions in French Guiana 234 5 integration 26 see also assimilation in school context 34 interactional norm (in western French Guiana) in institutional interactions 234 in non-institutional interactions 238 Intervenants en Langue Maternelle 34 IRD 2 Kali na 55 koineization 313 14 Kourou 27, 95 European space center in 87 village Saramaka in 89 Kwinti community 81 3 language see Eastern Maroon/Nengee relationship with Matawai 83 language attitudes 115, 116 research on 115: constructivist approach to 121; discourse-based approach to 115 16, 121; linguistic anthropology approach to 116 17; see also language ideology; matched-guise technique 115 change reasons for 323 unidimensonality of 323 construction 112 documentation 308, 328 9 language versus repertoire 329 linguistic heterogeneity in 330 traditional data collection methods 329 documentation of linguistic practices 332 5 documenting Takitaki see documentation of contact ideology 116 17 levels of 116 17 naming (practices) 117, 119 see also naming conventions cases: Africa 118; Anglophone Caribbean communities 118; Arabic 119; Frenchspeaking countries 118; Serbo Croatian 118 challenges 120: linguists 120 1; nativespeaker approach 119 entities that confer names 119 20 research on 119: etymological approach to 117 18 as social construct 113 of (primary) socialization 41 of social integration see Takitaki and weight 41, 61, 66 languages of France / langues de France establishment of list 30, 31, 136 of French Guiana 35 Langues et Cultures Régionales 31 lexical truncation 278 lingua franca of French Guiana 42, 55, 56, 61, 69 linguistic choice of children 66 community 332 heterogeneity 42, 67, 309, 330 landscape 41 practices real 40 stated 40 repertoire 46, 331 vs. language 329 30 of the school population 59, 63 of the teaching staff 31, 60 space 122 Loi Deixonne 30 Loweman Pansu (Maroon radio programme) 105, 190, 285, 297, 298, 299, 300 Mama Bobi 171 Mana 49, 50
of subjects, languages and locations 357 repertoire of children in 59 Maripasoula 93 Maroni/Marowijne River 6 Maroon 73 change of social structure 106 children from mixed marriages 105, 106 communities 76 current location of population in French Guiana 94 definition of term 4 depopulation of villages 90, 92 (female) elders 100 (male) elders 97, 98, 107 8 interaction patterns 100 1, 108 kiyoo 98 9, 101, 106 7, 108 kuutu 98 linguistic practices in urban French Guiana 312 location of communities 134 matriclans 77 bee 96 konde(e) 96: traditional residency rights 97 lo 95: (common) ancestor of 96; blood relations 96; classificatory relationships 96; origin of names of 95; religious specialist 97 matrilinear organization 96 population figures 91 population in Cayenne 95 population in Kourou 95 populations in metropolitan France 92 populations in the United States 92 positions/titled elders 97 basiya 98 gaaman 96, 97, 98 kabiten 98: female kabiten 100 relationship between the different Creoles 133 social integration (in French Guiana) 108 wakaman 98 women 99 100, 101, 106, 107, 108 Maroons and Amerindians 177, 178 bilose/downriver/urban 104, 105 and the civil war 102 Eastern 78 and education 109 and French Guiana 51 jobs of 101 and jobs in French Guiana 109 10 legal status in French Guiana 103, 108 9 marriage patterns of 97, 105 meaning of term 4, 78 migration of 25, 90, 93, 94, 101, 102, 103, 110 11, 189 official views about 36 opuse/upriver 104, 105 and Paramaribo 51, 71 and peace treaties (with the Dutch) 74 and Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni 51 subgroups of 104 urbanization of 93, 94 Western 77, 78 Matawai 77, 78 Mayman/Maima konde 49 linguistic situation of 64 7 Médiateurs Culturels et Bilingues 34 see also Intervenants en Langue Maternelle metropolitan French people 53 see also middle class middle class (of French Guiana) 143 see also metropolitan French people migration see French Guiana (migration) mono-ethnic communities 64 multilingual repertoires 61 multilingualism 45, 56, 68 and multicultural context 60 multi-methodological approach 330 naming convention 117 assignment of linguistic referent 162 naming process 163 see also processes of naming social positioning 162 nation-state (French) 29 ideology of 29 linguistic unity of 28, 29 sociopolitical ideology of 28 native speaker 42 non-native speaker 42 Ndyuka in Apatou 94 attitudes to 63 and cash labour 89, 101 community 79 80 as cover term 124 and the gold rush 90 language see Eastern Maroon or Nengee Kotika 80, 127 location of the 125 location of horticultural camps/kampu 90 location of traditional villages 89 as a lingua franca 61 as a majority language 61 meaning of term (or Okanisi/Aukan) 80 in Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni 90 negative politeness 252, 263 face-saving strategies 303 use among/with non-maroons 252
358 of subjects, languages and locations Nengee conceptualizations of (by Maroons) 123 5, 269, 270, 321 as a cover term 123 and English 204 6 ethnically based names 123, 125 functional varieties of 321 naming conventions in French Guiana 136 structural difference between varieties of 125 8 structural differences between Sranan Tongo and 128 31 traditional ideology of 105, 132, 269 varieties/styles of 261, 262, 263, 269 basaa nengee 153, 195, 243 everyday speech 266, 267 fositen tongo 262 respect speech (lesipeki taki) 263, 305: nongo 266; verbal indirectness 265, 267; see also piki-taki urban-rural difference 305 6, 313 wakaman/yunkuman taki 278 new immigrants 54 Noirs Marrons see Maroon 71, 78 Okanisi see Ndyuka/Nengee/Eastern Maroon Pamaka in Apatou 94 and cash labour 89, 101 community 81 and the gold rush 90 language see Eastern Maroon/Nengee location of horticultural camps/kampu 90 location of traditional villages 89 in Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni 90 pan-maroon identity 155 see also Takitaki penal colony (French) 24, 48 people from the wider region 55, 157, 178 performance issues 335, 336 plantations 23 plurilingual speakers 46 processes of categorization 162, 336 of naming 161 of social homogeneization or differentiation 336 of social positioning 162 professionals 53 proficiency (language) 26 Rakaba 30 reformulation see strategies of accommodation refugee camps (French) 50, 52, 93 official status of population 93 regional languages 33 see also language of France regularization of variation 206 second person singular pronoun 206 Saamaka/Saramacca 52, 77, 78 boatmen in French Guiana 87 Eastern Maroon views about 131 2 French Guiana Apatou 94 Approuague River and Regina 87 Cayenne 89 Kourou 89: European space centre 87 interior of French Guiana 92 Mana 87 route de Mana and route de Cayenne- Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni 89 Saint-Georges-de-l Oyapock 87 Tampak 87 gold rush 87 Saint-Georges-de-l Oyapock 39 Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni 6, 48, 50 school (language) survey 58 interviews 121 results of 64 7 second language varieties 327 semantic change 206 semi-guided interviews 41 serial verb constructions see linguistic variables social distinctions (new) 68 see Takitaki code-switching, greeting, courtesy titles domains 40 homogeneization see processes of homogeneization networks see data collection positioning see processes of positioning see also naming convention (assignment of) new value 68 representativeness 333 sociolinguistic survey participant observation in social domains 122 questionnaire survey 40, 121 sampling of language use 40 semi-guided interviews 41, 122 sociology of language see data analysis Sranan Tongo (SR-associated/based practices) attitudes to 63 distinctive features of 128 31 as a lingua franca 61 Maroon views about 131 names for 128 reasons for adopting 323 strategies of accommodation approximation 241 2
of subjects, languages and locations 359 discursive simplification 242 3 reformulation 242 structural reduction 240 1 style alternation practices see code-switching/ alternation Stuwmeer 78 styles of speaking 263 stylistic varieties see Nengee, varieties Suriname cash labour opportunities in the interior of 91 coup d état in 102 development of the interior of 102 Eastern Suriname 27 Surinamais / Surinamiens 51, 52 Surinamese civil war 52, 53, 102 effect on French Guiana 52, 53, 70, 71 2 repatriation of refugees 90 Takitaki auto-denominational term 141 continuum of varieties 318 cover term 136 9 determining factors of 232 development of 319 discursive functions of term 315 dissimulates belonging to certain ethnic groups 156 7 fuzzy or underspecified term 315 interactional characteristics of 311 12 inter-speaker and intra-speaker variation in 232, 258, 321 language label 316 language-learning trajectories of 172 means of cross-linguistic communication 310, 318 means of integration 310 monolithic entity 308 negative label 136 neutral label 152, 153 4 one-to-one mapping relationship of namespeech form-group 314 signal of common identity 154, 155 see also pan-maroon identity signal of intergenerational differences 156 Sranan Tongo-associated items in 207, 244 structural characteristics of 310 11 tool for social negotiation 315 16 urban Maroon practices 306 7 urban Maroon vs non-maroon practices of 313 user communities of 309 10 varieties 310, 317 18 views about 114, 143 4, 145 7, 147 8, 149 50, 150 1, 158 9, 310 work tool 309 TMA 207 urbanization (of western French Guiana) 53, 54, 55, 68, 93 variables 196 complex locational phrases 223 5 courtesy titles 285 92 demonstrative modifiers 200 future 211 15 greeting sequences 253 6, 292 6 imperfective aspect 208 11 piki-taki 263 5, 301 3 property ítems 215 19 serial verb constructions 226 7 simple locational phrase 219 23 temporal subordinating particles 227 9 verbal negation marker 200 vehicularization rate 61 verbal negation marker see variable verbal performance traditions in the West Indies 261 views of all social actors 331 Wayana 18, 35 weight 41, 59, 61 economic 41 numeric 41 symbolic 41