Education and Career Choice

Education and Career Choice

Also by Patrick White TEACHER SUPPLY: The Issues (With S. Gorard, E. Smith and B. H. See)

Education and Career Choice A New Model of Decision Making Patrick White University of Leicester, UK

Patrick White 2007 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2007 978-1-4039-8623-8 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency,90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published in 2007 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 Companies and representatives throughout the world. PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St. Martin s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Macmillan is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries. ISBN 978-1-349-54069-3 ISBN 978-0-230-62484-9 (ebook) DOI 10.1057/9780230624849 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data White, Patrick, 1971 Education and career choice : a new model of decision making / Patrick White. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Contents: Education and career decision making : an introduction to the issues Methods, context and sample Contextualising post-sixteen transitions : national, regional and historical trends Conceptualising choice : types, stages and models Choice motivations in year 9 Choice factors and rationales in year 11 Destinations, aspirations and trajectories Concluding remarks. 1. Student aspirations Great Britain. 2. Vocational interests Great Britain. 3. High school graduates Great Britain Attitudes. I. Title. LA637.7.W45 2007 373.1 80941 dc22 2006050005 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07

Contents List of Tables List of Figures Abbreviations and Terms Acknowledgements Introduction vi viii x xii xiii 1 Educational and Career Decision Making: An Introduction to the Issues 1 2 Methods, Context and Sample 35 3 Contextualising Post-16 Transitions: National, Regional and Historical Trends 47 4 Conceptualising Choice: Types, Stages and Models 83 5 Choice Motivations in Year 9 106 6 Choice Factors and Rationales in Year 11 122 7 Destinations, Aspirations and Trajectories 153 8 Concluding Remarks 167 Appendix 172 Bibliography 179 Index 187 v

List of Tables 3.1 All learners in further education, by sex, United Kingdom, 1970/71 2001/02 54 3.2 All learners in further education, by mode of study, United Kingdom, 1970/71 2001/02 55 3.3 Learners on Council-funded FE provision, by age and qualification aim level, England, 2004/05 56 3.4 Higher Education participation rates by social class groups 1990 and 2000 59 3.5 Pupils aged 15 achieving GCSE/GNVQ grades by school type, England, 2003/04 64 3.6 Average GCE/VCE A/AS-level point score of 16 18 year-old candidates by type of institution and gender, England, 2004/05 70 3.7 Main study aim of 16 year-olds: by parents qualifications, England and Wales, 2000 71 3.8 Average point score of 16 18 year-old candidates entered for GCE/VCE A/AS-levels, by Government Office Region, 2004/05 72 5.1 Year 9 choice motivations by frequency 118 6.1 Choice factors and choice stages 146 6.2 The relationship between factors and rationales: all students 147 7.1 Post-16 intentions and occupational aspirations by gender and occupational class 157 7.2 Occupational aspirations and social mobility 158 A1 Indices of income and employment, by Local Authority, 2004 173 A2 Income-based job seekers allowance claimants as percentage of population, August 2003 173 A3 Qualification levels of resident population aged 16 74, April 2001 174 vi

List of Tables vii A4 Distribution of ethnic groups, by Local Authority and Region, 2001 175 A5 Characteristics of schools in the sample, 1997/98 176 A6 Composition of sample by occupational class and sex 178

List of Figures 3.1 Young people aged 16 18 years in education and training by sex, England, 1986 to 1999 49 3.2 Participation in post-16 education and training, by route, England, 1994 2003 50 3.3 Male participation in post-16 education and training, England, 1986 1999 51 3.4 Female participation in post-16 education and training, England 1986 1999 52 3.5 Age participation index, Great Britain, 1990/91 2001/02 57 3.6 Age participation index by social class, Great Britain, 1990 2001 58 3.7 Higher Education participation rates by social class groups, 1960 2000 58 3.8 Pupils aged 15 achieving 5 GCSEs/GNVQs at grades A* to C, England, 1988/89 2003/04 61 3.9 Pupils aged 15 with no GCSE/GNVQ passes, England, 1988/89 2003/04 62 3.10 Achievement at GCE A-level or equivalent, United Kingdom, 1992/93 2001/02 66 3.11 Percentage of 16 18 year-old candidates achieving two or more GCE/VCE A-level passes in schools and FE colleges, in England, 1993/94 2004/05 67 3.12 General Certificate of Secondary Education A-level pass rate (%), by sex, 1995/96 2004/05 68 3.13 Distribution of GCSE A-level grades, as percentage passes, 1995/96 2004/05 69 3.14 General Certificate of Secondary Education A-level entries, growing subject areas, 1995/96 2004/05 75 3.15 General Certificate of Secondary Education A-level entries, subject areas in decline, 1995/96 2004/05 76 viii

List of Figures ix 3.16 General Certificate of Education A-level or equivalent entries for young people, selected subjects, United Kingdom, 2001/02 77 3.17 Distribution of GCE A-level grades, selected subjects, England, 2003/04 78 4.1 Choice in Year 9 (GCSE options) version 1 99 4.2 Choices in Year version 2 100 4.3 Year 11 choice model version 1 101 4.4 Year 11 choice model version 2 102 4.5 Year 9 choice frequencies 103 4.6 Year 11 choice, by type and stage 104 A1 Pupils achieving five or more GCSE A* C grades, Lumbertonshire LEA and England, 1996 2004 174 A2 Pupils achieving five or more GCSEs at A* C, by school, 1994 2004 177

Abbreviations and Terms API AVCE BTEC CEG DfEE DfES DOVE ESRC FE GCE A-level GCE AS-level GCSE GNVQ HE HEFC HESA IER LA LEA LFS LSC NCDS NVQ ONS SES SSLS UCAS VCE A-level Age participation index (higher education) Advanced vocational certificate in education Business and Technology Education Council Careers education and guidance Department for Education and Employment (now DfES) Department for Education and Skills Diploma of Vocational Education Economic and Social Research Council Further Education General Certificate of Education, Advanced level General Certificate of Education, Advanced subsidiary level General Certificate of Secondary Education General National Vocational Qualification Higher education Higher Education Funding Council Higher Education Statistics Agency Initial entry rate Local authority Local education authority Labour Force Survey Learning and Skills Council National Child Development Study National Vocational Qualification Office for National Statistics Socio-economic status Scottish School Leavers Survey University and Colleges Admissions Service Vocational Certificate of Education, Advanced level x

Abbreviations and Terms xi VCE AS-level Vocational Certificate of Education, Advanced subsidiary level YCS Youth Cohort Study... Pause in interview conversation [...] Section of interview conversation edited for presentation

Acknowledgements I would first like to thank all the students and staff who participated in the fieldwork and without whom the research project could not have been conducted. I would also like to thank the following people for their help, advice and guidance during the research and the writing of this book. Thank you to Jane Salisbury and Gareth Rees, for much encouragement and support during my research. Thanks also to John Fitz for reading my work early in the research. I am grateful to Stephen Gorard for a thorough reading of this text and for inspiration and encouragement over the past few years. Thank you to Emma Smith for her endless patience and support in the face of much impatience and frustration. She also provided valuable advice to a new author. I would finally like to thank my parents, Beryl and Michael, for all their support over the years. This book is dedicated to them. xii

Introduction This is a book about choice. Choice is an emotive subject among social scientists as it is of central importance to debates in a wide range of substantive areas. The relative importance of individual freedom of action ( agency ) and the constraints imposed by one s position in society ( structure ) has been fiercely debated and there are few, if any, areas of study within the social sciences where questions relating to individual choice are not raised. Consequently, the literature in the area is wide ranging both in terms of disciplinary origin and topic of investigation. The research documented in this text is, in the context of the above, very modest in both its scope and ambitions. Its primary goal was to attempt to examine decision-making behaviour in a particular context, the transition facing young people nearing the end of their compulsory schooling in the United Kingdom. Payne (2003, p. 8) highlights the importance of this area of study stating that the choices that young people make about what to do at age 16 when compulsory full-time education ends are of both private and public interest. Their choices affect both their own futures and the supply of educated and trained labour in the economy. There were two main elements to the research project. A review and synthesis of the available secondary data identified important trends in post-16 participation. The fieldwork, primarily involving interviews with young people, aimed to conceptualise the choice-making process at this important transition. As the fieldwork was conducted over a certain period of time and in a specific geographical location, any findings are limited by this. Any attempts to generalise the findings generated by analysis of the interview data must, necessarily, be speculative. However, the study described herein represents an attempt to move the field forward in several different ways. First, in contrast to other studies examining choice at this juncture, the analysis attempts to present a model that represents, however xiii

xiv Introduction approximately, the process of decision making. While previous studies of post-16 choice have purported to investigate the process of choice (e.g. Hodkinson et al. 1996) any resulting models have been inadequate, for reasons that are explained in Chapter 1. Secondly, the concepts used in the present study to describe the choice process do not rely on either problematic or contested notions, such as rationality, or the work of currently fashionable theorists. Finally, while not attempting to replicate the large-scale surveys documenting the factors influencing young people s decisions, the study incorporates students motivations and ambitions into the analyses. Unlike most small-scale studies, the sample of institutions and students in this study are located in local, regional and national contexts through an examination of secondary data relating to participation and attainment. Although this does not increase the generalisability of the findings, it sets the scene for the study whilst allowing the reader to make judgements regarding the typicality of both the individuals and institutions that participated in the research. Chapter 1 locates the present study in the context of wider debates surrounding both youth transitions, and educational and career choice. The theoretical frameworks that have previously been used to conceptualise youth transitions are examined, with particular attention paid to debates relating to the reproduction of inequalities. The role played by theory in recent empirical research is questioned, alongside an evaluation of the usefulness of currently fashionable, and frequently cited, theoretical concepts. Previous research into post-16 transitions is reviewed in detail in order to assess the current state of knowledge in the area. Important predictors of both continued participation and particular routes are identified, as are factors and sources of information identified by young people as influential on their choices. The chapter ends with a detailed examination of the work of two groups of researchers whose research has been particularly influential. Problems relating to these researchers operationalisation of social class are highlighted, as is their reliance on problematic theoretical concepts. Their contribution to an understanding of the process of post-16 choice is also questioned. Chapter 2 outlines the methods of data collection and analysis used in the research. The collection and analysis of secondary data is

Introduction xv addressed first. The value of, and problems inherent to, an analysis of existing large scale data sets is discussed, and the sources used are described briefly. The fieldwork element of the research is then addressed, beginning with an account of the selection of both the institutional and student samples and their resulting composition. The limitations placed on the research by the methods of data collection and the nature of the sample are discussed, and their implications for any findings explored. Chapter 3 uses publicly available data to map recent trends in post-16 participation and attainment. Pertinent data relating to compulsory schooling and higher education (HE) are also examined. Analyses of Department for Education and Skills (DfES) and Youth Cohort Study (YCS) data are used, alongside other relevant data sets, to map important trends and developments and to place the research within a national context. Important long term trends and changes occurring since the study took place are also documented and reflected upon. Chapter 4 is the first of four chapters documenting the results of the analysis of the student interviews. It describes the first stages of the analysis of the interview data, which concentrated on the development of a typology of decision making. Decision making was conceptualised as being either inclusive, exclusive or default. This typology was combined with the idea of choice stages to construct models of decision making in Years 9 and 11. Chapter 5 examines the motivations young people reported for particular choices made in Year 9. Connections are made between the particular types of choice behaviour observed in this year and the restricted nature of the alternatives available to students. Young people s orientations to their educational and vocational careers are also examined. In Chapter 6 the motivations for Year 11 choices are considered. Because of both the richer nature of the interview data relating to this transition and the increased complexity of the choices to be made, the analysis is more sophisticated. Motivations are examined in terms of two related dimensions factors and rationales. The connections between students prioritising of different factors and the rationales they provided for their decisions are of particular concern. Chapter 7 examines the occupational aspirations of the student sample. Young people s career goals are compared to their class

xvi Introduction backgrounds in order to assess their imagined mobility. The place of occupational intentions in relation to post-16 choices is investigated and the idea of cumulative trajectories is proposed. Chapter 8 summarises the most important research findings and draws tentative conclusions. The current state of research in the area is also addressed and recommendations are made for future areas of study. The implications for recent policy debates are also explored. Appendix A includes contextual information relating to the local area in which the fieldwork was conducted. Information on the following areas is included: the local labour market, unemployment, income, uptake of benefits, and levels of education. These data are then compared to national and regional averages. The relative position of the locale in relation to these indicators is assessed, alongside potential implications for the research. Brief descriptions of the educational institutions in the sample are also included, alongside data on their intake and academic outputs. Research questions It is useful for the reader of any research report to be clear about the aims of the study. The research questions addressed in this research can be summarised as follows: 1. In terms of the post-16 transition, what have been the most important trends in educational attainment and participation over the past two decades? 2. How do young people make educational and career decisions at the end of compulsory schooling? 3. What factors are considered important by different young people? 4. What motivates young people to make particular choices about their post-16 destinations? 5. What is the cumulative effect of decisions made during compulsory schooling on young people s career trajectories?