Morpho-Lexical Alternation in Noun Formation

Morpho-Lexical Alternation in Noun Formation

Morpho-Lexical Alternation in Noun Formation Zeki Hamawand University of Hamburg palgrave macmillan

* Zeki Hamawand 2008 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2008 978-0-230-53738-5 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1 T 4LP. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2008 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 Companies and representatives throughout the world PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St. Martin's Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Macmillan is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries. ISBN 978-1-349-35916-5 DOI 10.1057/9780230584013 ISBN 978-0-230-58401-3 (ebook) This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Hamawand, Zeki. Morpho-lexical alternation in noun formation / Zeki Hamawand. p.cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. English language-noun. I. Title. PE1205.H352008 425'.54-dc22 2007050061 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 Transferred to Digital Printing 2011

To my mother a fountain of love, a paragon of generosity, and the epitome of kindness.

Contents List of Figures List of Tables Preface Acknowledgements xi xii xiii xv 1 Nominalisation 1.1 Introduction 1 1 1.2 Theoretical paradigms 1.2.1 Formalist paradigm 4 1.2.1.1 The form-of-the-base hypothesis 6 1.2.1.2 The phonology-of-the-suffix hypothesis 6 1.2.1.3 The category-of-the-base hypothesis 6 1.2.2 Functionalist paradigm 7 1.2.2.1 The semantics-of-the-suffix hypothesis 9 1.2.2.2 The semantics-of-the-derivative hypothesis 9 3 1.3 1.4 New approach 1.3.1 Keystones 1.3.2 Goals 1.3.3 Procedures Models of analysis 1.4.1 Cognitive Linguistics 1.4.1.1 Category 1.4.1.2 Domain 1.4.1.3 Construal 1.4.2 Usage-based Linguistics 1.4.2.1 Authenticity 1.4.2.2 Semanticity 11 11 13 14 16 17 18 21 23 24 26 27 1.5 Summary 28 Notes 29 vii

viii Contents 2 De-Verbal Nominalisers 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Semantic networks 2.2.1 -al 2.2.2 -ce 2.2.3 -ion 2.2.4 -ment 2.3 Knowledge configurations 2.4 Conceptual distinctions 2.4.1 The sequential-whole distinction: -al vs -ion 2.4.2 The instance-type distinction: -ce vs -ment 2.4.3 The sequential-instance distinction: -al vs -ce 2.4.4 The sequential-type distinction: -al vs -ment 2.4.5 The whole-instance distinction: -ion vs -ce 2.4.6 The whole-type distinction: -ion vs -ment 2.5 Summary Notes 3 De-Adjectival Nominalisers 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Semantic networks 3.2.1 -ce 3.2.2 -cy 3.2.3 -ity 3.2.4 -ness 3.3 Knowledge configurations 3.4 Conceptual distinctions 3.4.1 The state-status distinction: -ce vs -cy 3.4.2 The trait-mode distinction: -ness vs -ity 3.4.3 The trait-existent distinction: -ness vs -ity 3.4.4 The status-trait distinction: -cy vs -ness 3.4.5 The status-mode distinction: -cy vs -ity 3.5 Summary Notes 31 31 32 33 35 36 38 40 42 43 45 47 49 50 52 54 55 57 57 58 59 60 62 63 64 66 67 70 73 75 77 78 79

Contents ix 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 De-Nominal Nominalisers Introduction Semantic networks 4.2.1 -age 4.2.2 -dom 4.2.3 -hood 4.2.4 -ism 4.2.5 -ship 4.2.6 -(e)ry Knowledge configurations 82 82 83 84 86 87 88 90 92 94 4.4 Conceptual distinctions 95 4.4.1 The territory-position distinction: -dom vs -ship 96 4.4.2 The condition-position distinction: -hood vs -ship 98 4.4.3 The territory-condition distinction: -dom vs -hood 100 4.4.4 The condition-belief distinction: -hood vs -ism 101 4.4.5 The position-doctrine distinction: -ship vs -ism 102 4.4.6 The condition-body distinction: -hood vs -age 103 4.4.7 The position-body distinction: -ship vs -age 103 4.4.8 The position-body distinction: -ship vs -ery 104 4.5 Summary Notes 5 Agent-Forming Nominalisers 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Semantic networks 5.2.1 De-verbal agent suffixes 5.2.1.1 -ant 5.2.1.2 -ee 5.2.1.3 -er 5.2.2 De-nominal agent suffixes 5.2.2.1 -(i)an 5.2.2.2 -ist 5.2.2.3 -ster 5.3 Knowledge configurations 105 106 108 108 109 110 110 112 114 116 116 118 119 121

x Contents 5.4 Conceptual distinctions 123 5.4.1 The specific-generic distinction: -ant vs -er 123 5.4.2 The potential-actual distinction: -er vs -ee 125 5.4.3 The inventive-implementive distinction: -ist vs -ian 127 5.4.4 The social-vocational distinction: -er vs -ster 129 5.4.5 The mechanical-inventive distinction: -er vs -ist 131 5.5 Summary 133 Notes 133 6 Conclusions 136 6.1 Significant contributions 6.1.1 Theoretical contributions 6.1.1.1 Multiplicity of suffix meaning 6.1.1.2 Specificity of suffix meaning 6.1.1.3 Conditionality of noun alternation 6.1.2 Empirical contributions 6.1.2.1 Semantic distinctions 6.1.2.2 Discriminating collocations 6.2 Explicit comparisons References 6.2.1 Meaning 6.2.1.1 Check-list theory 6.2.1.2 Componential analysis theory 6.2.1.3 Truth-conditional theory 6.2.2 Alternation 6.2.2.1 Traditional approach 6.2.2.2 Structural approach 6.2.2.3 Transformational approach 6.2.2.4 Functional approach 6.2.2.5 Construction-Grammar approach 6.2.2.6 Grammaticalisation approach 6.2.2.7 Word-Grammar approach Subject Index Suffix Index Noun Index 136 137 137 142 144 144 144 145 156 157 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 165 166 168 169 171 178 180 181

Figures Figure 2.1 The semantic network of the de-verbal suffix -al 34 Figure 2.2 The semantic network of the de-verbal suffix -ce 36 Figure 2.3 The semantic network of the de-verbal suffix -ion 38 Figure 2.4 The semantic network of the de-verbal suffix -ment 40 Figure 3.1 The semantic network of the de-adjectival suffix -ce 60 Figure 3.2 The semantic network of the de-adjectival suffix -0' 62 Figure 3.3 The semantic network of the de-adjectival suffix -ity 63 Figure 3.4 The semantic network of the de-adjectival suffix -ness 64 Figure 4.1 The semantic network of the noun-forming suffix -age 85 Figure 4.2 The semantic network of the noun-forming suffix -dam 87 Figure 4.3 The semantic network of the noun-forming suffix -hood 88 Figure 4.4 The semantic network of the noun-forming suffix -ism 90 Figure 4.5 The semantic network of the noun-forming suffix -ship 92 Figure 4.6 The semantic network of the noun-forming suffix -ery 93 Figure 5.1 The semantic network of the de-verbal agent-forming suffix -ant 111 Figure 5.2 The semantic network of the de-verbal agent-forming suffix -ee 113 Figure 5.3 The semantic network of the de-verbal agent-forming suffix -er 116 Figure 5.4 The semantic network of the de-nominal agent-forming suffix -(i)an 118 Figure 5.5 The semantic network of the de-nominal agent-forming suffix -ist 119 Figure 5.6 The semantic network of the de-nominal agent-forming suffix -ster 120 xi

Tables Table 2.1 The (sub)domains evoked by de-verbal suffixes in English 41 Table 3.1 The (sub)domains evoked by de-adjectival suffixes in English 65 Table 4.1 The (sub)domains evoked by noun-forming suffixes in English 95 Table 5.1 The (sub)domains evoked by agent-forming suffixes in English 122 Table 6.1 The multiple senses of de-verbal nominalisers in English 138 Table 6.2 The multiple senses of de-adjectival nominalisers in English 139 Table 6.3 The multiple senses of de-nominal nominalisers in English 139 Table 6.4 The multiple senses of agent-forming suffixes in English 141 Table 6.5 The (sub)domains evoked by nominalisers in English 143 Table 6.6 Discriminating collocates of noun alternatives sharing verbal roots 145 Table 6.7 Discriminating collocates of noun alternatives sharing adjectival roots 149 Table 6.8 Discriminating collocates of noun alternatives sharing nominal roots 152 Table 6.9 Discriminating collocates of noun alternatives denoting agenthood 154 xii

Preface Aims This book describes the semantic relationship between morpho-lexical items in forming nouns in English. The main focus is on noun pairs that share a single root but end in different suffixes. To do so, two approaches are adopted. Theoretically, the book is cognitive-oriented. It is geared towards substantiating some tenets of Cognitive Semantics. One tenet is that linguistic items are polysemous in nature. In view of this, the book seeks to show that noun-forming suffixes have a wide range of senses that gather around a centre. Another tenet is that the meaning of a linguistic item is defined in terms of the domain in which it is embedded. In relation to this, the book strives to show that nounforming suffixes form sets which highlight their similarities as well as differences. A further tenet is that no two expressions are synonymous even if they look similar. In connection with this, the book attempts to show that although the noun pairs evoke the same content they differ in terms of the alternative ways the speaker construes that content. Empirically, the book is usage-based. It is oriented towards substantiating some axioms of Corpus Linguistics. One axiom places emphasis on authentic data. In this regard, the book relies upon the British National Corpus and the Web for the occurrences of a word with its surroundings. Another axiom lays emphasis on meaning distinction. In this respect, the book relies upon collocations associated with the noun pair for sense discrimination. Chapters The book falls into six chapters. Chapter 1 provides an overview of the issue of nominalisation in English. It proposes a novel approach to tackle it, hinging on the three cognitive tenets of category, domain, and construal. Chapter 2 explores the tenets in the investigation of de-verbal nominalisers. First, it reviews the role of category in describing their internal structures. Next, it discusses the role of domain in diagnosing the minimal differences between them. Finally, it demonstrates the impact of construal on the interpretation of the derivatives they form. Chapter 3 implements the tenets in the description of xiii

xiv Preface de-adjectival nominalisers. In the beginning, it shows how category highlights their multiple senses. In the middle, it explains how domain discloses their specific meanings. In the end, it elucidates how construal disengages the nominal pairs they derive. Chapter 4 examines the tenets with references to de-nominal nominalisers. Initially, it considers their semantic structure. Midway, it addresses their specific meanings. Ultimately, it defines the semantic constraints which separate the noun pairs they form. Chapter 5 applies the tenets to agent-forming suffixes. First, it portrays their semantic networks. Second, it underlines their specificity. Third, it focuses on the meaning determinants which guide the choice of the nouns they derive. Chapter 6 sums up in tabular form the main findings of the analysis. Audiences This book is a synchronic analysis of noun-forming suffixes in English. It integrates the principles of both Cognitive Semantics and Usage-based Semantics. The main issue the book involves is the roles of suffixes in bringing about differences in meaning between pairs of nouns sharing the same roots. To achieve that, the book gives information about preferences speakers or writers have for one choice over another. As such, the book will attract a diverse audience. One strand of audience will be scholars of morpho-lexicology who will find a detailed treatment of an area which is neglected in the central texts in the discipline. Of central significance for them will be the cognitive tools employed to account for morphological data. A second strand of audience will be language teachers and text-book writers who will find solutions to the usage complications. The focal point for them will be the meaning differences between noun pairs that are in current use, shedding light on the conditions under which lexical choices are made. A third strand of audience will be advanced students and general learners of English who will find a thorough discussion of an area of the language that is likely to pose problems for them. At the core of their interest will be the mechanisms used in noun formation, particularly how the suffixes are associated with communicative needs.

Acknowledgements There are several people I would like to thank for helping me in different ways, direct or indirect, to carry out the research reported on in this book. First, I record my indebtedness to Wendy Anderson, of the University of Glasgow, for devoting her time to reading and commenting on an earlier draft of the work, giving perspicacious remarks, keen insights, and invaluable feedback on the whole manuscript. Second, I am grateful to John Newman, of the University of Alberta, for making various suggestions which helped to sharpen the issues and tighten the discussion. Third, I am indebted to Geoffrey Williams, of Universite de Bretagne Sud, for providing bright ideas concerning corpus issues. Fourth, I would like to thank Geoff Thompson, of the University of Liverpool, and Olga Fischer, of the University of Amsterdam, for answering my queries about other language theories. Fifth, a special debt of gratitude goes to Jill Lake, the Linguistics Editor at Palgrave Macmillan, for her indispensable advice and prudent guidance, which helped to make this a better book than it would otherwise have been. Likewise, thanks are due to Smitha Manoj and the staff of Macmillan India Ltd for the attentiveness and professionalism which they showed in the production process of the work. Responsibility for any errors is entirely my own. Last, but far from least, my sincere thanks go to my mother for her unswerving love and ceaseless support over the years. I am so grateful to her for all that she has done. This book is dedicated to her as a token of my gratitude. xv