An Administrator s Guide

Transcription

1 An Administrator s Guide

2 McGraw-Hill gratefully acknowledges the contributions of the following people to this publication: Daniel A. Domenech, Ph.D. Dr. Domenech is the former Superintendent of Fairfax County School District in Virginia and is the new executive director of the American Association of School Administrators (AASA). Sharon Lanham, B.S. Ms. Lanham is a former teacher, publishing consultant, and reading curriculum publisher with 20-plus years experience in developing and implementing reading programs. Heidi Janzen M.Ed. Ms. Janzen is a former teacher and long-time curriculum developer with experience building student content and teacher professional development. Jan Hasbrouck, Ph.D. Dr. Hasbrouck is a nationally recognized, experienced educator whose research on coaching and instruction has been published in numerous journals and books. Mary Henton, M.Ed. Ms. Henton is a former teacher with a background in learning theory. She is a published author on multiple topics related to professional development for classroom teachers. Vicki Gibson, Ph.D. Dr. Gibson is an experienced educator who has taught across multiple grades, including the university level. She is nationally recognized for her work in differentiated instruction and has published widely on that topic. Elizabeth Melville, M.A. Ms. Melville is a former ELL teacher who has more than 10 years experience creating ELL professional development for teachers across a variety of content areas. Linda Thompson, Ph.D. Dr. Thompson is a nationally recognized consultant on assessment and the use of data for informing instruction. Robin Wisniewski, Ph.D. Dr. Wisniewski is a consultant for Kent State University and is widely published in teaching and reading journals. Barbara Rudiak, Ph.D. Dr. Rudiak is the Executive Director of the Pittsburgh [K 5] Public Schools who manages instruction in 18 of the 20 district K 5 schools. She also works with the central Academic Leadership team to ensure the quality of the district s professional development program. David Hong, M.A. Mr. Hong is Instructional Dean of Mathematics and Science and AP Environmental Science instructor and consultant for Diamond Bar High School in the Walnut Valley School District. Toni Eannarero, M.Ed. Ms. Eannarero is the principal of Hillview Middle School in the East Whittier City School District. Carol Rothenberg, M.S. Ms. Rothenberg is a nationally recognized consultant on ELL topics and has several published books on teaching English Learners. Published by McGraw-Hill Education, a division of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., Two Penn Plaza, New York, New York All rights reserved. The contents, or parts thereof, may be reproduced in print form for nonprofit educational use with Macmillan/McGraw-Hill Treasures or Glencoe Literature, provided such reproductions bear copyright notice, but may not be reproduced in any form for any other purpose without the prior written consent of the McGraw- Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, network storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Printed in the United States of America XXX The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide ii

3 Contents Using This Handbook Leadership in Education Implementing a New Reading/Language Arts Program Intervention Coaching Differentiated Instruction Effective Professional Development English Language Learners in the Classroom Standards-Based Instruction Principles of Data-Driven Instruction Educational Technology Appendix A Teacher Collaborations Appendix B Implementation Timeline Materials Request/Inventory Form Observational Checklist for Reading/Language Arts Motivating Student and Parents Reading in an Instructional Context Appendix C Developing an Intervention Program Web-Based Resources for Intervention The Basic Principles of Intervention Appendix D Coach Me In My Classroom Appendix E Sample Full-Day Schedule Sample Rotation Charts Checklist for Monitoring Instructional Time Checklist for Monitoring Classroom Environment Teacher/Classroom Observation Report Meeting Students Needs The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Contents 1

4 Contents Appendix F Professional Development Checklist Professional Development Survey The Role of Collaboration Appendix G Observational Checklist for Student Language Proficiency Level Observational Checklist: Instructional Strategies Appropriate to Each Proficiency Level A Language-Rich Experience Social Communication and Academic Language Skills Appendix H Standards for Students Features of Standards-Based Instruction Appendix I Data-Driven Instruction Observation Checklist Classroom Assessment Survey Checkpoints Appendix J Using Technology Using the Internet The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Contents 2

5 Using This Handbook This book and its online companion are an acknowledgment of the critical position played by the educational administrator in today s classroom. Administrators, be they district personnel or school principals, are the leaders who pull together a cohesive curriculum, create the environment for a community of learners, and help teachers, staff, and students maximize their potential. To assist you, McGraw-Hill has published an online Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Guide, a series of articles on some of the key educational topics of the day, collected in one place for your easy access (URL: This print, companion handbook contains brief summaries of those articles and materials to help you share this information with faculty and staff. In the pages that follow, you will find discussion materials for group or faculty meetings. For each of the ten topics drawn from the online handbook, there are five key leadership points, five discussion questions, a summary of the topic article, and a list of related resources that can be found at the back of the book. These resources include handouts that are suitable for your use and for classroom use by group or faculty participants. There are also a number of activities with facilitator guides that can be used to extend exploration or learning around the discussion topics. We suggest that you access the full, written version of the articles in the online handbook prior to using these activities. These articles will give you a solid overview of the critical concepts related to the topics and will provide you with information to further the group discussions. We hope you find these materials interesting and helpful in building a shared sense of community purpose with regard to reading instruction. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Using This Handbook 3

6 Leadership in Education Where Do You Find Leadership? Daniel A. Domenech, Ph.D. Leadership is action, not position. Donald H. McGannon While I was superintendent of the Fairfax County Public Schools in Virginia, I had the opportunity to participate in a program at Harvard s John F. Kennedy School of Government. Until then, all of my leadership training had consisted of workshops and seminars hosted by education associations and district professional development, and all had been totally focused on education. What I took away (The big takeaway) from the Harvard experience was that leadership is not confined to the job nor is it specific to a profession. Leadership is a trait that we exhibit at home, at work, and at play just about anywhere we choose to exert it. On the faculty at Harvard was Ronald A. Heifetz who wrote two books on leadership that I found very helpful: Leadership Without Easy Answers and, with Marty Linsky, Leadership on the Line. According to Heifetz and Linsky, To lead is to live dangerously because when leadership counts, when you lead people through difficult change, you challenge what people hold dear. Heifetz and Linsky pose leadership as risky business, and they helped me to articulate a theoretical framework and to become more strategic about the process of leading. For example, many of us think that to lead you have to have the authority to lead. That is not the case. Leaders lead with and without authority by influencing others to act. Coaches often recognize that certain players can exert more influence on their teammates than the coach. Principals are well aware of the influence that some teachers have on the rest of the staff. Is leadership a trait that we possess innately, or can it be learned? As with most traits, the degree to which we possess the trait innately varies from individual to individual. Anyone observing preschoolers at play will quickly be able to identify those with leadership qualities. However, do not be concerned if you feel that you are not a born leader. As with most skills, leadership can be learned and applied to specific situations. Leadership in education is associated with those who are empowered by the school system with the authority to make decisions. Board members are empowered by the electorate to establish policy, employ staff, and create a budget. The superintendent is empowered to oversee the operation of the school system, and the principal has similar authority at the building level. In the classroom, the teacher has authority over the students. All of this would be incredibly uncomplicated if all we had to do was give orders and require people to follow them (bark orders and the minions would simply follow them). Not so. Are You Leading or Managing? There is a difference between leading and managing. Managing generally requires authority and is essential for maintaining the necessary routines that define a well-organized and highly functional organization. The nuts and bolts of an operation the logistical details necessary for a school to run smoothly, the discipline teachers must have in the classroom if learning is to take place these are examples of managing. It is primarily a technical process. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Leadership in Education 4

7 Leadership in Education Leading, on the other hand, is more of an adaptive process and deals with making decisions that are not routine. Leaders have a vision that they share with the community they serve. Leaders propose the actions that a school system must take to make the vision a reality. Arriving at the vision often involves decisions that may create a degree of discomfort for those affected by the decision. If the action is significant enough and causes great discomfort, it can result in the leader s dismissal. Just look at the turnover rates for school superintendents. The demise of many educational leaders occurs when they fail to distinguish managing from leading. I recall a conversation with a newly appointed principal who had stirred a hornet s nest by deciding to change the school s grading policy. Upon an initial inspection of student grades, the principal concluded that teachers were too lax in assigning grades and unilaterally imposed rigid grading requirements. Clearly, the principal had the right to make that decision, but it was hardly a routine decision. The teachers were upset because their professionalism had been questioned. The parents were upset because their children would not be getting as many As. The students were upset because they would have to work harder for higher grades. The principal may have been justified in taking the action and indeed had the authority to do so, but this was not a management decision. A leader has to anticipate the consequences of an action to be taken and develop a strategy that will ensure that the decision is supported and successfully implemented. What Are Basic Leadership Skills? Leadership requires the ability to differentiate routine managerial, or technical, decisions from adaptive decisions that may have serious implications. Leaders cannot make the mistake of thinking that, because they have the authority to make the decision, it is permissible to do so without considering the consequences. The reality is that an accomplished leader will pave the way for difficult decisions by employing a number of strategies. An effective leader seeks and establishes a support structure. When we attend events honoring people for their accomplishments, it is not unusual for the individuals to claim that they could not have done it alone, and they name others who played a role in their successes. The fact is that we can seldom accomplish anything alone. Even in individual sports competition, world class athletes have trainers, coaches, mentors, and many other supporters who share credit for their successes. What Does a Leadership Team Look Like? As a school leader, you need to devote time to seeking out representatives of the constituents affected by the school and engage in relationship building. Within the school, develop a cohesive unit of those individuals who constitute your direct reports. I referred to my immediate reports in Fairfax as my Leadership Team. We were a cohesive unit that met regularly and communicated constantly. Critical decisions were carefully vetted through my Leadership Team, and all possible consequences were considered. A leader needs that kind of sounding board. Obviously, the members of the team must feel that they have permission to speak their minds and to disagree with the boss. It must also be understood that once a decision is made, the disagreements are over. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Leadership in Education 5

8 Leadership in Education The makeup of the leadership team is important. The natural tendency would be to surround ourselves with others who think as we do. It is nice to be surrounded by supporters who agree with everything we do and say, but that arrangement, although great for the ego, is lethal to the survival of a leader. Diversity in composition adds value to the team. Diversity in age, gender, experience, ethnicity, and behavior or communication styles will give you the cross-section of views and opinions that will prove invaluable in the decisionmaking process. Using a Myers-Briggs type of survey instrument to assess the behavior or communication styles of the leadership team will give you a sense of the team s diversity and point to deficits that might need to be addressed in the hiring process. What Is the Process of Relationship Building? Once a viable and effective leadership team is in place, you must begin the process of building relationships with all segments of the school community. Key stakeholders must be sought out among the business community, teacher associations, parents, students, and that increasing group of tax-paying residents who do not have children in the schools. I established advisory councils for each of these groups and met with them on a regular basis. That s an awful lot of time, you say? Yes it is, but every minute spent on building positive relationships saves hours in attempts to salvage proposals because of opposition from groups with vested interests. Understand that relationship building is not a one-way street. It is not sufficient to bring the groups together and then tell them what you have decided to do. The process begins with soliciting their ideas as to what changes, if any, need to be made to the system. You become a sincere listener at this stage. Once input has been sought, you can begin, with the assistance of the appropriate staff, to develop potential solutions. Remember, too, that relationship building should reach upward. In a school environment it is always critical to keep those above you in the chain of command informed of what you are doing. No surprises. Leaders, by virtue of the position they have reached, tend to have strong opinions, but it is a mistake to approach a problem with a preconceived solution. You can have a strong sense of what should be done, but you must be open-minded and willing to consider the ideas of others. Invariably, an effective leader will conclude the problem-solving process with a modified and improved solution, thanks to the input of others. How Does a Leader Face Opposition? With a potential solution in hand, the next step is to consider who will support it and who will oppose it. If interest groups see their suggestions incorporated into the proposal, they will tend to own it and support it. Any group adversely affected by the potential solution will generally oppose it. Ideally, we want solutions that are supported by all. The reality is that unanimous support seldom, if ever, comes about. Consequently, the leader strives to get as much support for the proposal as possible. Leadership is put to the test when an unpopular decision must be made because it is the right thing to do. Leadership is not always about doing what the majority wants. If that were the case, we could replace our leaders, thanks to today s technology, with electronic votes The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Leadership in Education 6

9 Leadership in Education on every conceivable decision and let majority rule. The effective leader will occasionally go against the grain and eventually be proven right. The trick is to have developed enough support through positive relationship building to generate the trust that will keep opposition at bay long enough for the solution to work. Be warned, however, that if you consistently go out on a limb, it will eventually be sawed-off from under you. Conclusion As a young superintendent, I was very impressed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower s metaphor on leadership. He said that if you lay a piece of string straight on a table and then take one end of the string and push, it bunches up in front of you, resisting any forward progress. On the other hand, if you take an end of the string and pull it along, it neatly follows. Pushing people to do their jobs is not as effective as pulling them along. Leadership is about creating the vision that will motivate others to follow. It is about being a role model and being respected. It is not about intimidating or having others fear you. If you want to learn to be a good leader, think of those people you admire and would follow to the ends of this earth. Imitate them, learn from them, and have them serve as role models and mentors. But beware. Leadership is risky business. Bibliography Heifetz, Ronald A. Leadership Without Easy Answers. Cambridge: Harvard University Press,1998. Heifetz, Ronald A., and Marty Linsky. Leadership on the Line. Cambridge: Harvard Business School Press, Discussion Points and Questions When you meet with your faculty, ask discussion questions such as the following to encourage teachers to value and act on their leadership role in the classroom: How do you define leadership? Does a person have to be in a position of authority to take a leadership role? As a leader in your classroom, how do you build interest when you begin a new subject? What successful strategies have you used to lead students into new areas of study? Is it possible to propose some projects, so they seem less unilaterally imposed and more a set of choices provided? What kinds of projects can a teacher lead students to take up with interest or even enthusiasm? Are you able to use to your advantage the leadership skills some students may exhibit, without repeatedly showing overt favoritism or preference? Instructional goals are generally not negotiable, but how they are reached may be. Over the next week, consider where in the curriculum you can provide choices and still exert your leadership skills. Additional Resources See Appendix A: Activity A1: Teacher Collaborations The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Leadership in Education 7

10 Implementing a New Reading/Language Arts Program Education is not the filling of a pail, but the lighting of a fire. William Butler Yeats, Irish poet A successful district literacy program is composed of three essential components: curriculum, instruction, and assessment. Teaching and motivating students from preschool to high school to read, write, listen, and speak requires integration of concepts and processes from each of these components. The success of these essential components is dependent upon the efforts and expertise of teachers, school leaders, parents, and other caregivers. In fact, for a sustainable literacy program, the entire community must be involved. When the efforts of the literacy community are combined with the literacy plan for curriculum, instruction, and assessment, students receive seamless support in their development of literacy. Curriculum Instructions Standards Curriculum Guides or Maps Materials Teachers School Leaders Parents Community Lesson Plans Strategies Best Practices Assessment Summative Formative Data District Literacy Program What this suggests is that an important step towards a successful district literacy program is to get everyone invested in the plan. Teachers and school leaders should be knowledgeable about literacy issues and well informed about each component of the literacy program. They should know what each component looks like when it is implemented in the classroom. Teachers should be skillful at implementing the components of their grade levels and creating a consistency of instruction that spans the grades. Obviously, this is a complex process, one that combines the district s literacy plan with purposeful professional development and quality reading/language arts materials. The reading/language arts materials adopted by your school district should be carefully selected and implemented. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Implementing a New Reading/Language Arts Program 8

11 Implementing a New Reading/Language Arts Program Creating an Implementation Plan The introduction of a new reading/language arts program is an opportunity for you to motivate and stimulate interest in literacy within your schools and throughout the broader community. The initial introduction of the program can have significant impact on the way it is perceived by teachers, students, parents, and school leadership. A well-organized plan for implementation is the first step to a successful launch and effective use of a new program. Procedures for introducing a new reading/language arts program fall into these categories: Establishing a Planning Group Ordering and Distributing Materials Designing and Planning Professional Development Introducing the New Reading/Language Arts Program to the District Staff Cultivating a Reading/Language Arts Community Evaluating the Program s Implementation Establishing a Planning Group One approach to creating a successful implementation plan is to invite teachers, reading specialists or coaches, media specialists, and school leaders to participate in the development of the literacy plan. Each site that will use the new program may appoint representatives to participate in the planning. Involve the planning group in setting goals, establishing new procedures or plans, and developing a timeline for each task. A sample Implementation Timeline is provided in Appendix B. Ordering and Distributing Materials When ordering, you should do as follows: 1. Concentrate first on priority materials (Student Editions and Teacher Editions) Next, identify practice materials and the quantities to be ordered. Practice materials may include workbooks and leveled books or leveled readers. Determine if the choice of practice materials will be a district-wide or a building-level decision. The decisions may vary by grade level. Determine which program assessments will be used and what quantities are needed in the initial order. Assessment decisions may also vary by grade level. A key person to include in the ordering of new materials is the sales representative for the newly adopted reading program. The representative can provide assistance in ordering materials and can also provide information on the terms and agreements of the program purchase. To assist you in the ordering and distribution process, a Materials Request/Inventory Form is provided in Appendix B. This form may be used by individual teachers to request items or it may be used as an inventory list for each school or each teacher. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Implementing a New Reading/Language Arts Program 9

12 Implementing a New Reading/Language Arts Program Designing and Planning Professional Development Professional development plays a critical role in the successful introduction of a new reading/language arts program. Effective professional development requires analysis of the needs of your district s students and educators. You may want to invite teachers, school leaders, curriculum specialists, and key staff members to participate as part of a planning group. Establishing a planning group or an advisory board to help create a professional development plan can increase awareness of and interest in the process as well as the final sessions. Premeeting surveys and self-assessment guides can be helpful tools in identifying teachers needs for professional development. You may want to share the following priorities with the planning group: Analyze and outline district needs. Formulate a strategy to meet those needs. Set professional development goals and objectives. Plan and align professional development sessions to meet the goals. Evaluate the sessions. During planning, consider both short- and long-term needs of the district staff. Keep in mind these tenets of quality professional development. Purposeful professional development is well-planned and based upon current needs of the district, schools, and/or teachers. Each session should build knowledge and demonstrate strategies for meeting those needs. Ongoing professional development is a continuous learning process that cannot be achieved through a single meeting or a one-shot approach. Systematic professional development values the sequence of professional learning and the time recipients need to internalize and apply new learning. Systematic plans include the needs of both the district and its staff. While there is some controversy about the way professional development should be evaluated, it must still be done. You need to hear from session participants and to consider the impact professional development has upon student learning. Introducing the New Program to the District Staff You can use professional development to introduce a new reading/language arts program, its philosophy, and the best practices that support it. These sessions may be district-wide or school-based, depending upon the number of people attending. During planning sessions, consideration should be given to the needs of individual grade levels or grade spans. Districts should contact the local sales representatives of their textbook publisher(s) to schedule consultants to conduct these initial sessions. Both the sales representatives and consultants can be helpful in planning the content of the sessions. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Implementing a New Reading/Language Arts Program 10

13 Implementing a New Reading/Language Arts Program Initial Orientation for Teachers, Coaches, and Reading Specialists Initial orientation meetings on a new reading/language arts program can be scheduled at the end of the school year or before the opening of school, once teachers have their materials. It is important that teachers and school leadership be knowledgeable about the new program and confident in the use of its materials before the start of school. The content of an initial orientation meeting or in-service session for teachers and practitioners may include the following topics: Program Overview Organization and use of the Student Edition and the Leveled Books Best practices of instruction and use of the Teacher s Editions Lesson Planning Teaching the Key Components Phonics, Phonic Awareness, Comprehension, Vocabulary, Fluency, and Writing Teaching the ELL student Teaching Struggling Readers and Intervention Grouping for Instruction whole and small groups, flexible groups Differentiation and enrichment activities Overview of the program components Administration and use of the assessment materials Techniques for informal assessment Use of technology/ways of incorporating technology into lessons You may want school leaders to use the initial teacher orientation meetings as opportunities to establish reading goals, to plan future teacher evaluations, or to discuss school-community connections. See Appendix B for suggestions for school and community activities: Motivating Students and Parents. Initial Orientation for School Leaders Focus the initial orientation for school leaders on the administration of the program. You may want to include the following topics: Administration of the a new reading/language arts program Current research and trends Effective teaching strategies and best practices Program overview Overview of the program components Use of the program materials Classroom observations While school leaders do not need as much program detail as classroom teachers, there are leadership topics that require more in-depth knowledge. School leaders should be aware of current research and trends in reading/language arts, especially those related to effective teaching. Leaders need to understand the connections between the instruction and strategies outlined in lesson plans and their application in the classroom. An observational The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Implementing a New Reading/Language Arts Program 11

14 Implementing a New Reading/Language Arts Program checklist should be a key component of this session. A sample Observational Checklist for Reading/Language Arts is provided in Appendix B. Ongoing Professional Development The initial orientation meeting is only the beginning of ongoing professional development designed to support teachers in developing best practices or to extend their professional learning. Follow-up should occur approximately six weeks after a program s implementation. At that point in the program s use, teachers will have numerous questions. Having a follow-up meeting with an experienced consultant who can respond to teachers questions is usually very helpful. Some other purposeful sessions that support a new reading/language arts program include: Research and Best Practices in Reading/Language Arts Instructional Strategies for Reading/Language Arts Teachers Phonics Phonemic Awareness Vocabulary Comprehension Fluency Writing Leveled Readers Reaching All Readers Standards and Your Reading/Language Arts Program Technology and Your Reading/Language Arts Program Using Reading/Language Arts Assessment to Inform Instruction Classroom Management in the Reading/Language Arts Program Differentiating Instruction in the Reading/Language Arts Program Instructional strategies for Reading/Language Art teachers are many and varied. Professional development sessions may focus on any of the components listed above or may combine some of the topics. When sessions are focused on instructional strategies, consider instructional goals, student benchmarks, and any teacher-requested support. Provide adequate time for each element. Cultivating a Reading/Language Arts Community Parents are important to the success of a reading/language arts program. The more information they have about the program, the more supportive they are. Information encourages and builds helpful routines for parent participation. Some suggestions for informing and involving parents and other caregivers include: Invite parents to participate in the selection process or in the review of materials prior to selection. Send letters home to explain that a new program has been adopted and to invite parents to attend a meeting to learn about the new program. This meeting may be a scheduled parent night at the school or it may be a meeting to specifically introduce the program. Have students create invitations to the school s open house. At the meeting, provide information about the new program and display student work from it. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Implementing a New Reading/Language Arts Program 12

15 Implementing a New Reading/Language Arts Program Have an after-school meeting or workshop to introduce parents to the new program, during which you give parents an overview of the program display program materials conduct short demonstrations on ways parents can constructively model or reinforce skills and concepts at home schedule time for the parents to share literacy ideas that work for them at home Use student work to interest parents. Keep records of student reading, provide copies of their writing, gather student-selected journal entries, or use representative samples of key work. Students can create Parent Portfolios of work they want to share. Teachers can include notes to the parents to explain the importance of student work. Encourage parents to read with their children. Provide a recommended reading list for each grade that takes into account students independent reading levels. Develop a system for tracking the books students have read one that tracks their leveled books as well as their library books. Have teachers send this list home at the end of each reporting period to give parents an update on their children s reading activities. Suggest or send home activities and reading materials that parents may use to participate in their student s learning process. Schedule parent conferences to discuss children s progress in reading and writing. Folders of children s work are most helpful in communicating student progress and in identifying areas where students need assistance. Invite parents to special events throughout the school year. Have students create the invitations, using their reading/language arts skills and their creativity. Establish a Volunteer or Mentor Program Enlist parents, grandparents, other caregivers, and community members to provide students with individual attention and to provide teachers with assistance. Build an effective Volunteer or Mentor Program by assessing staff and student needs determining interests and talents of volunteers and assigning tasks accordingly holding an orientation meeting to discuss school and district procedures and rules introducing volunteers to the school and classrooms before the program begins providing training to volunteers preparing students to work with volunteers providing written instructions for volunteers publicly recognizing volunteers who have made major contributions to the program Volunteers can support school staff and teachers in a number of ways. For example, they can maintain a Reading Room (within the media center or in a separate room) where students can be read to or may read to a volunteer. Volunteers can work with the media specialist to help students explore and use the library or its media, including technology. They can record audio tapes or disks of literature that allow students to follow along in their books. Solicit ideas for volunteer tasks from teachers and students. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Implementing a New Reading/Language Arts Program 13

16 Implementing a New Reading/Language Arts Program Generate Interest in Reading/Language Arts It takes a community to develop and sustain a successful reading/language arts program. Cultivating the motivation of that community to support literacy involves both planning and teamwork, but the rewards are great for all involved: students, teachers, parents, grandparents, local news organizations, volunteers, school board members, or local businesses. With community support, literacy can blossom. Benefits of an involved community include: The goals of the program are communicated and supported. Literacy becomes important to everyone, not just students and teachers. Teachers receive valuable help and support. The community is informed about events and successes. The community is involved and has ownership of the program. Everyone in the community has a vested interest in the success of reading/language arts. A successful literacy program stimulates interest and motivates participation in reading/ language arts. A list of activities that can be used to build interest and community support is provided in Appendix B: Motivating Students and Parents. Evaluating the Results After a new program is implemented, look for and reflect on instructional changes and changes in student learning that result from the use of new materials and from the professional development initiated by this new program adoption. School and classroom observations may be used to determine the correctness and the effectiveness of the implementation. Observations may be conducted by administrators or by coaches. However, each observer should report objective findings both to those responsible for the new reading program and to those responsible for professional development. Such observational data allow those in supervisory positions to adjust and improve the program s use. To ensure standardized and consistent observational criteria, observers should use the same checklist. A sample Observational Checklist for Reading/Language Arts is provided in Appendix B. Since all teachers being observed are unlikely to be at exactly the same place in their lessons, it is important to note where each teacher is in the lesson s instructional sequence. A teacher s lesson plan for reading/language arts may unfold over a week s instruction comprehension one day, phonics and decoding another, and so on. The sample observation checklist includes places to record this information. Conclusion Planning for a new reading/language arts program is a complex but worthwhile process. The key events are ordering and distributing materials, designing and delivering professional development, cultivating a reading/language arts community, and involving district staff. If it takes a village to raise a child, it takes a community to support a successful reading/ language arts program. A successful program is led by motivated and skillful teachers who The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Implementing a New Reading/Language Arts Program 14

17 Implementing a New Reading/Language Arts Program understand the diverse needs of students and how to reach each child. Today s students are more than empty vessels waiting to be filled; they are diverse, active learners. Today s teachers need the skills, motivation, and passion to engage each student in the pursuit of reading. In fact, teachers must be able to start students on the path to a life-long pursuit of reading. A well-designed implementation plan for a new program will be the first step in lighting a fire in each student and each teacher. Discussion Points and Questions To begin involving staff and faculty in the implementation of a new literacy program, you may want to present these questions for discussion: What new program materials are priority items? What preparations need to be made for ordering and for delivering new materials to classrooms? Do you have any specific requests for orientation sessions for the new program? How long after implementation do you want to have a follow-up session with a program consultant? In what area do you think students need the most instructional support? How do those needs affect planning for professional development? How will we monitor and evaluate changes in instruction and changes in student learning to determine the success of the program and the professional development? Over the next week, think about activities and projects that will encourage parents and community leaders to become invested in our literacy program. Determine what activities can be implemented by your classroom and what projects will need a more collaborative effort. Additional Resources See Appendix B: Handout: Implementation Timeline Handout: Materials Request/Inventory Form Handout: Observational Checklist for Reading/Language Arts Handout: Motivating Students and Parents Activity: Reading in an Instructional Context The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Implementing a New Reading/Language Arts Program 15

18 Intervention Education is the point at which we decide whether we love our children enough not to expel them from our world and leave them to their own devices, not to strike from their hands their chance of undertaking something new but to prepare them in advance for the task of renewing a common world. Hannah Arendt As an educator, you want to help all of your students to master the learning that will allow them to become effective and happy adults. You adopt rigorous learning standards and implement high-quality instructional programs. You use comprehensive assessment systems and adopt innovative teaching practices. Still, many students fail to achieve grade-level content mastery. This is why a truly comprehensive educational program will include an effective, research-based intervention program for struggling learners. What is intervention? We define intervention as additional instruction that supports improved academic performance. This often means assisting students to master content described by learning standards or helping them gain the skills and knowledge they need to meet designated performance levels on state assessments. Intervention programs are more intense curriculum instruction, based on the assumption that all students can achieve a level of content mastery. Effective intervention models are anchored in appropriate curriculum, are aligned to relevant standards, and provide supportive instructional strategies and techniques. Indeed, many best practices for general classroom instruction are used extensively in intervention programs. These include flexible grouping, engaging and motivating student activities, real-life connections, discovery learning, hands-on activities, and active student response. Intervention instruction can take many forms, including whole-class, small-group, peer tutoring, one-on-one tutoring, and computer-assisted instruction. It can address all academic areas, although it will most often target elements of literacy and reading or mathematics. Intervention providers can range from parents, to teachers, to curriculum specialists. The programs can take place during the school day, before and after school, and during summer school programs. A typical intervention model is one in which a student receives intervention instruction two or three times a week until the student demonstrates mastery of the content (typically 6 8 weeks), but the frequency, intensity, and length of intervention will vary with the student s needs. The intervention program should be accompanied by a frequent and ongoing assessment program that monitors results and guides implementation decisions. Who should receive intervention? All students who are at risk, for whatever reason, 1 of failing to master or meet learning standards, mandated proficiency levels, or established curriculum benchmarks are candidates for some kind of intervention. 1 Because language is critical to understanding academic content, many students with English language deficiencies are candidates for intervention programs. These designations need to be made in accordance with district and state English Language Learner policies and regulations. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Intervention 16

19 Intervention Key to effective intervention is the early identification of both the struggling student and the skills that student lacks. Responsive instruction relies on assessment programs that are multifaceted and include comprehensive standards-based assessments, as well as continued teacher observation, informal assessment, student work, attendance records, and student behavior. What is the Response to Intervention Model? One effective intervention model in use today is Response to Intervention (RTI or RtI). The goal of RTI is the prevention of more severe educational problems through early, proactive intervention. It is a program in which scientifically-based interventions are used earlier and more frequently (Bureau of Exceptional Education and Student Services 2006). The primary characteristics of the Response to Intervention model are: Use of Intervention Teams that follow a Problem-Solving Approach (Professionals from different disciplines develop and evaluate intervention plans designed to improve the academic performance of students.) Intervention that is provided at increasing levels of intensity based on progress monitoring and data analysis A Three-Tier Approach to Intervention Tier I: universal instructional strategies for all students (e.g., differentiated instruction and additional classroom phonics instruction) Tier II: intervention individualized to address the needs of at-risk students (e.g., additional targeted teaching time and supplemental peer tutoring in reading to increase reading fluency) Tier III: intensive intervention for students with severe needs (e.g., special intervention programs) As the program moves from tier to tier, there is an increase in the focus and intensity of the intervention and the frequency of assessment, but the number of students decreases. Tier I Tier II Tier III Focus and Intensity of Intervention Focus and Intensity of Intervention Focus and Intensity of Intervention Frequency of Assessment Frequency of Assessment Frequency of Assessment High Medium Low Number of Students Number of Students Number of Students The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Intervention 17

20 Intervention Other characteristics of a Response to Intervention program are: universal screening (all students) curriculum-based benchmarks diagnosis of problem areas (identified through assessments) an accountability plan for intervention that includes: description of the interventions duration, schedule, and setting persons responsible measurable outcomes progress monitoring schedule description of assessment instruments progress monitoring data comparison from assessment to assessment The process used for a Response to Intervention program is to: Identify students at risk of failing to achieve learning benchmarks. Tailor intervention plans to meet the needs of these students. Monitor student progress over time to ensure that students are closing the gap between initial and desired achievement levels. Adopt procedures to identify students who are not responding adequately to current intervention levels and to refer these students to other programs, such as special education. Response to Intervention Problem-Solving Process Define the Problem Use assessment instruments to identify at-risk students. Evaluate Did the gap between initial and desired performance decrease? Implement Plan Implement as intended Problem Analysis Diagnose and identify factors that contribute to student s poor academic performance Monitor progress Modify as necessary The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Intervention 18

21 Intervention What do you consider when implementing an intervention program? If you organize an intervention program, consider the three Cs: Coordination: Coordinate the program with classroom instruction, grade-level standards, and student benchmarks. Communication: Invoke frequent and productive communication among all members of the intervention team: the classroom teacher, intervention provider, and parents or caregivers. Curriculum: Use a high-quality curriculum that is aligned with classroom instructional goals and state or district learning standards. Instruction in an intervention program should follow established best practices for classroom instruction as well as several critical hallmarks of effective intervention: instruction that is systematic, explicit, and intensive. An effective intervention program will follow a problem-solving, team-based approach that identifies academic concerns and analyzes them within the instructional environment. The team develops a Plan for Intervention and implements that plan, constantly monitoring progress for improvement in student learning and evaluating the program itself. Finally, the team uses the monitoring and evaluation data to determine next steps. Effective intervention programs are ones in which assessment, instruction, and standards are tightly aligned. You should develop a program in which at-risk learners are identified early, involved in active learning, and participate in small-group instruction and peer tutoring. Also, it is important that your program involve parents. Standards Assesssment Instruction Intervention How do you monitor progress in an intervention program? Steps for monitoring progress and assessment results should be part of your intervention plan. Just as important, you need to develop a schema for managing the next steps for students based on the data. The relationship between assessment data and intervention is critical. Assessment and analysis should occur frequently, and data should be used to determine if a student returns to class, receives further intervention, or receives other services, such as special education. It is essential to provide support and training to teachers or intervention providers who lack experience with either assessment or analysis of the data. Tips for Monitoring Progress: Establish clearly what you are looking for and determine how you will measure it. Plan ways to determine if intervention is being implemented as intended. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Intervention 19

22 Intervention Look for outside influences that may impact a student s performance (e.g., nutrition, health, or home-life issues), and work with your team to prepare ways to compensate for negative influences. Use assessment instruments that are sensitive to a student s short-term gains. Use weekly progress monitoring that includes interpretation of assessment data and appropriate corresponding teacher response. Use valid and reliable assessment instruments. Examples of measurements that are frequently used in intervention programs are DIBELS, 2 to measure early literacy and reading skills, and CBM, 3 to measure phonemic awareness, oral reading fluency, mathematical computation, writing, and spelling skills. How do you evaluate an intervention program? The goal of your intervention program is to improve students academic performance. Therefore, the evaluation of the program will be linked to defined benchmarks and expectations that are clearly communicated, frequently monitored, and carefully aligned with curriculum and assessment. The program will have specifically-identified goals, such as a designated percentage of growth in meeting achievement benchmarks. Successive assessment should show a narrowing of the gap between the initial and the desired academic performance. When evaluating your intervention program, you should be able to describe the intervention, including who received it, the contents, and the duration identify who provided the intervention, including any training the provider received describe how the intervention varied from regular instruction describe the goals of the intervention, that is, the desired outcomes list factors outside of instruction that may have contributed to a student s performance identify valid instruments that measure assessment results include data for students who do not complete the intervention program consider all outcomes, not just positive ones report results in easily understood, real-world terms (e.g., the student increased her reading level by two years; the student improved his multiplication computation by 75%) consider long-term results Can results be sustained over time? How do you help students migrate back into regular instruction? The effort required to help students migrate back into regular instruction depends on the type and length of the intervention. For any intervention, the migration back should be fluid and nondisruptive, for the returning students and for their classmates, so your teachers need to have a support system in place. This, too, should be part of the intervention plan. 2 The Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skill, or DIBELS, are a set of short (one minute), standardized fluency measures designed to be administered regularly and individually to monitor prereading and early reading skills. 3 Curriculum-Based Measurement, or CBM, is the process of brief, timed measurements of a student s performance using material that reflects or is from regular instruction. CBM is used to assess level of performance and progress toward a specific goal. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Intervention 20

23 Intervention Whole-class intervention is the least disruptive, with all students moving together. Targeted individual intervention can work in conjunction with classroom instruction, making use of peer tutors, small groups, or mentors to help students stay abreast of their classmates. In secondary school settings, individual interventions may be accomplished during a mandatory intervention period built into the school day. Pull out and after-school programs that provide instruction separate from the normal classroom require the most after-program support. Do students migrate back into regular instruction permanently? To ensure that gains made during intervention are not lost in the pacing of normal instruction, it is important to consistently monitor progress after a student returns to the regular classroom. An effective intervention program will be organized so that students can migrate in and out of intervention, as needed, getting support or extra instruction on any concepts with which they struggle. Do not overlook the importance of creating a school and classroom environment that is tolerant and supportive of all students. This will help students feel comfortable and accepted as they move from classroom to intervention and back. All teachers should view themselves as important members of a schoolwide team that is responsible for helping all students achieve. Bibliography Bureau of Exceptional Education and Student Services. The Response to Intervention (RtI) Model. Technical Assistance Paper Tallahassee, FL: Florida Department of Education, February Fenske, Robert H., Geranios, Christine A., Keller, Jonathan E., and Moore, David E. Early Intervention Programs: Opening the Door to Higher Education. ERIC Digest ED412862, Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education, Griffiths, Amy-Jane, Parson, Lorien B., Burns, Matthew K., VanDerHeyden, Amanda, and Tilly, W. David. Response to Intervention: Research for Practice. Alexandria, VA: National Association of State Directors of Special Education, Inc., James, Fiona. Response to Intervention in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), Memorandum written for the International Reading Association. Washington, DC: George Washington University Graduate School of Education, December, Wright, Jim. The RTI Toolkit: A Practical Guide for Schools. Book excerpt. (Retrieved September 2007.) National Professional Resources Inc. Discussion Points and Questions When you meet with your faculty, ask discussion questions such as the following to begin a dialogue on intervention issues: Have we maintained an intervention curriculum that is aligned with classroom goals and with state and district standards? How can we analyze this to ensure that we have? With what curriculum content do nearly all students need support? What instructional strategies can we put in place to help? The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Intervention 21

24 Intervention What is the current level of coordination and communication among intervention providers, classroom teachers, and parents or caregivers? How can it be improved? How can we provide a tolerant and supportive environment, so students feel comfortable and accepted as they move from classroom to intervention and back? Is peer tutoring used in classrooms? Over the next week, explore ways to set up peer tutoring to help students who are struggling with certain skills. Look for areas in which peer tutoring can be most effective. Additional Resources See Appendix C: Handout C1: Developing an Intervention Program Handout C2: Web-Based Resources for Intervention Activity C3: The Basic Principles of Intervention The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Intervention 22

25 Coaching Leadership and learning are indispensable to each other. --John F. Kennedy Introduction The role of coach is no longer exclusive to athletics. Coaches can be found in the boardroom, in the manager s office, or in the home. A coach is someone who leverages knowledge and professional or personal experience to facilitate growth and change in others. Classroom teachers and content specialists are using their knowledge and experience to provide support and guidance to their colleagues by assuming the role of instructional coach. The service provided by an instructional coach ultimately improves student learning, as long as the roles, expectations, and coaching program itself are well-defined. An Instructional Coach The purpose of coaching is to develop better instructional support for students. Coaching can support teachers, principals, or parents, but its ultimate purpose is to help students. Experience, training, and support are critical to the success of any coach. The ideal candidate for the position of an instructional coach is someone who is an experienced teacher with a strong knowledge base in the subject area for which he or she wants to be a coach is experienced in providing effective instruction to struggling students is trained to work with peers to help them improve student learning will have support from you to work with administrators, other teachers, instructional assistants, and parents and guardians on behalf of students Knowledge: The instructional coach, as an experienced teacher, brings a wealth of knowledge, direct experience, and a repertoire of strategies to the classroom. The coach has expertise in content and pedagogy. The coach is also knowledgeable about student learning and instructional intervention. Experience: An instructional coach has extensive experience working with a variety of students: English learners, struggling students, and gifted students. The teacher who can draw on both theoretical knowledge and practical, hands-on experience is best able to assist colleagues as they work to meet the unique needs of one student or the challenges presented by a group of students. Training: Coaching skills are developed through training and practice. Not every teacher who is successful with students is equipped to provide effective guidance, support, and feedback to peers. Potential instructional coaches must have training and practice with mentoring, supporting, and helping peers. Support: It is critical that instructional coaches receive administrative support in their work with other teachers, instructional assistants, parents and guardians, and students. You must consistently demonstrate support for improving student achievement through coaching. This is especially critical during the introduction of a coaching program when questions, reservations, or doubts about its efficacy may be widespread. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Coaching 23

26 Coaching The Coach s Role Coaching enables teachers to develop effective new instructional strategies, to know when and how to use those strategies to support student learning, and to engage in sufficient practice so they can apply their new strategies in a flexible manner (Showers, Joyce, & Bennett 1987). Coaching is a mutually beneficial professional development opportunity for teachers and coaches alike. It is both cooperative and collaborative. Coaching is professional development that is job-embedded, multifaceted, and directed at improving student learning. As a principal or other administrator, you may recommend or encourage a teacher to make use of a coach s services, but you should not require a teacher to work with a coach. Requiring participation turns coaching into supervision, replacing the emphasis on students with an emphasis on the teacher. Both parties in the coaching relationship must willingly and mutually engage in efforts to help students. And, while the instructional coach brings experience and skills to bear, the coach is neither supervisor nor sole expert but rather a collaborative participant in the coaching activities. The instructional coach is a facilitator who works with staff to build the success of all students. The coach is not responsible for wholesale change in a school climate and practice. The coach removes barriers to change, provides learning opportunities, and encourages teachers, staff, and students. The instructional coach is a collaborative problem-solver who employs systematic, structured processes to work with teachers. Together, they address problems that impede student success. A coach does not listen to descriptions of classroom problems and prescribe a solution. A coach collaborates in solving the problems. This ensures ownership of the strategies by all involved. Teachers who understand that the coach is a collaborator are more likely to approach the situation as an opportunity for professional development. The instructional coach is also a learner. The coach not only stays current with the best research in instruction but also learns from every teacher with whom he or she interacts. The coach continually reads, studies, seeks out professional development opportunities, and accesses the support of colleagues and outside resources. The Qualities of a Good Coach There are two baseline qualities to look for in a good instructional coach. First, the coach is a master teacher who is knowledgeable about content, pedagogy, and student learning. A master teacher is able to articulate the processes by which instructional decisions are made and is able to model good practices. Second, the coach is continually involved in personal and professional development and will turn to other experts when the need arises. The coach, who stays current with research, can translate the research into practice and relies on data to inform decisions about instruction. As a professional, the coach sets aside or resolves anything that gets in the way of working toward student success. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Coaching 24

27 Coaching There are four additional qualities to look for in a good instructional coach: an ability to maintain focus on the goal of coaching effective leadership skills effective communication skills facility with data Focus: The instructional coach maintains focus on the purpose of coaching to help every student become successful. The coach consistently addresses classroom practice in terms of student learning and does not confuse coaching with teacher supervision or evaluation. The coach consistently maintains a collaborative relationship with the teacher and only works in those classrooms where she or he has been invited. Leadership: A good instructional coach possesses leadership skills. The coach works with administration to support school-wide improvement and sets an example for the staff for use of best practices. Because the coach maintains a solid knowledge base about instruction and understands the research and its applicability to the classroom, the coach is positioned to collaborate with building and district administrators regarding instruction. Communication: A coach shares information effectively, talking to, interviewing, and providing feedback to teachers, students, parents and other caregivers. A coach also listens, understands, and empathizes. The responsibilities of an instructional coach require strategic and well-practiced communication skills applicable to a wide range of situations. Facility with Data: The coach must be able to collect, process, and manage data and information from diverse sources. To be an asset to the teacher, student, and school, the coach must be able to fully assess a learning situation from a variety of perspectives. The coach gathers data through interviews, classroom observations, and formative and summative assessments. The coach must be able to analyze and synthesize the data, apply them to identification of the problem(s) and then determine the best course of action. Steps to Successful Implementation of an Effective Coaching Program There are several basic steps that you, as an administrator, can take to ensure successful implementation of an effective coaching program. First, directly align the coaching program with the school improvement plan. Unless coaching is part of an entire plan for school improvement, it will only serve as a bandage. Next, collaborate with the coach to develop, articulate, and share goals and expectations with the entire teaching staff. Throughout the coaching program, communicate directly with staff at faculty meetings and through other school communication routes newsletters, announcements, staff development sessions clearly and consistently describing the goals and focus of coaching. Explain that the coach is able to work with individual teachers or with small teams. Once the groundwork of alignment and communication has been laid, help the coach build a caseload. You can help the coach identify and engage the early adopters. Teachers in their first few years of teaching are often eager candidates, seeking guidance and encouragement. Teachers who talk in terms of improving their own practice or those who regularly and willingly engage in staff development are also potential participants. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Coaching 25

28 Coaching Together, you and the coach can build relationships that encourage others to take advantage of the coaching opportunities. Administrative support and acknowledgment are crucial for the growth and sustainability of a coaching program. Acknowledge teachers who access the coach s services. Applaud accompanying successes. Share articles that confirm their work. Write notes of thanks and encouragement. With these efforts, maintain the focus on student success. Throughout the process, support the coach as a teacher. Avoid temptation to protect the coach from any normal responsibilities that the staff bears, such as bus duty or attendance at staff development meetings. Keep in mind, though, that the coach is not a substitute to be used to constantly cover other missing staff. The coach is not a quasi-administrator, but rather a teacher and a peer. It is important to support and encourage that perception to facilitate the collaborative relationships between the coach and other staff. Finally, provide needed resources and ensure that the coach continues in her or his own professional development. The coach s professional growth is critical to the success of the program. Shortchanging the coach would be unfair to the teachers who work with the coaching program. Monitoring Progress Within a Coaching Program The goal of a coaching program is to improve students skills and competence. Monitoring progress must be from this perspective. Seek feedback from all parties involved in the coaching the coach, participating teachers, and even those students and parents or other caregivers who directly benefit from the coaching program. Plan in advance for the data you will monitor to determine the effect of coaching on student learning. Good coaching programs bring about positive changes in staff attitudes. For example, the number of teachers willing to work with a coach will increase over time, as will the number of teachers working with each other to improve their classroom practices. Collaboration and communication among teachers on behalf of students will increase. Classroom teachers will access and look at disaggregated data. All this will occur as teachers recognize that raising skill and achievement for lower performing students and improving performance for all students is a shared responsibility. A good coaching program will help participating teachers improve their ability to articulate their work. It will help them learn to set clear, targeted, and time-defined goals. Watch and listen for an increase in teachers abilities to describe goals for student improvement and their ability to adjust their own instructional activities to help students meet those goals. Evaluating a Coaching Program A good evaluation plan is part of a coaching program s initial design. It is important to work directly with the coach and teachers who initially participate in the program to develop the evaluation plan. Determine specific, measurable, achievable, and time-bound program goals. Include formative evaluation steps and allow for adjustments to the program as it unfolds. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Coaching 26

29 Coaching Evaluate student growth data over time. The effects of a good coaching program will initially reveal themselves in discreet, gradual, but measurable ways. Implement formative assessments to look at targeted, specific, and measurable goals. Identify growth over time. Align to the whole. Encourage change by aligning classroom expectations to schoolwide goals. Teachers will support and participate in the coaching program when they see that it is in direct alignment with the school s improvement plan. Think big but start small (Guskey 1995). Successful professional development programs target long-term goals but chart change over time. Encourage and expect teachers to integrate new practices incrementally and to demonstrate gradual, yet measurable growth. Be real. Be clear. Consider the realities of the classroom when setting expectations about changes in teacher behavior. Do not expect teachers to overhaul their entire curriculum or all of their teaching methods at once. Set clear, concrete, practical expectations specifically directed towards helping students achieve. Include self-reflection and self-evaluation. Changes in teaching practice are significantly enhanced when teachers reflect on and evaluate their own work (Learning First Alliance 2000). Focusing on the relationship between their efforts and student success helps teachers direct their reflections and enhances the professional development experience. Compensating the Coach There are several ways to compensate the instructional coach. Monetary compensation. If the budget allows, compensate the instructional coach financially with a stipend. Recognition. Acknowledging a coach s contributions to the school is a critical and nocost form of compensation. Acknowledgment can be in the form of letters to district personnel that articulate the coach s contributions, notes of appreciation directly to the coach, and regular, verbal appreciation. Time. An adjustment in the coach s teaching load or schedule is another way to compensate a coach. Give the coach time to visit other schools and to interact with other coaches. Professional development opportunities. Time and financial support for the coach to engage in her or his own professional development are powerful statements. Professional development includes attendance at conferences, classes, or workshops where the coach is either a participant or a presenter. Provide opportunities for the coach to submit articles to newsletters or other publications. Online networks. Encourage the coach to look for online forums, discussion groups, or networks of coaches and/or instructional leaders that can serve as a professional learning community for the coach. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Coaching 27

30 Coaching Conclusion Instructional coaches play an important supporting role for teachers and for students, who are the beneficiaries of the teachers work. Defining and maintaining roles and expectations for the work of instructional coaches ensures that they will do their best and that your students will be able to do their best. Bibliography Guskey, T.R. Professional development in education: In search of the optimal mix. In T. R. Guskey & M. Huberman (Eds.), Professional development education: New paradigms and practices (pp ). New York: Teachers College Press, Learning First Alliance. Every child reading: A professional development guide. Baltimore. MD: Author. Retrieved October 25, 2007, Showers, B., Joyce, B., and Bennett, B. Synthesis of Research on Staff Development: A Framework for Future Study and a State-of-the-Art-Analysis. Educational Leadership 45 (1987): Discussion Points and Questions When you meet with your faculty, ask the following questions to initiate discussion of a coaching program: What should be the priorities for a coaching program that would be productive for us: instructional strategies, differentiated instruction, ongoing assessment, classroom and time management, content, or another area? What kind of data and evidence can we use to help in the start-up of the coaching program? How can we build in adequate time for teacher and coach dialogues outside of the classroom instructional time? How will we monitor progress that can be attributed to the coaching program and how frequently? What specific areas would you choose for coaching support? Over the next week, reflect on your teaching each day and how all of your students are responding and performing. Additional Resources See Appendix D: Activity: Coach Me Activity: In My Classroom The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Coaching 28

31 Differentiated Instruction Education in our times must try to find whatever there is in students that might yearn for completion, and to reconstruct the learning that would enable them autonomously to seek that completion. Allan Bloom Vicki Gibson, Ph.D. Differentiating instruction can be a challenge for educators trying to improve the overall quality of reading instruction and to enhance student achievement. Providing the administrative support and leadership for successful implementation begins with understanding what differentiated instruction is and how to make it happen in classrooms. The purpose of this article is to clarify routines and procedures that help educators differentiate instruction, improve instructional effectiveness, and increase student achievement. What is differentiated instruction? Differentiating instruction means teaching differently. It means changing the process or delivery, or how we teach, to include high-quality initial instruction in whole class and follow up small-group lessons that are well-differentiated according to student needs. Changing the way we teach using whole-class and small-groups must occur first to ensure that opportunities for differentiating instruction will occur. Then, as educators, we change what we teach using leveled materials and practice activities that specifically address student differences and skill needs. Why differentiate? Differentiating instruction ensures that teaching and learning activities are meaningful and useful for every student. Differentiation includes more teaching using whole and small groups, and a change in pacing using a gradual release of responsibility from teachers to students. To ensure student success, instruction in small groups is scaffolded, ranging from easy to difficult or from less content to more elaboration and application of skills front-loaded, meaning more instructional support is available during introduction and early practice activities meaningful because leveled curriculum materials and purposeful activities are selected using student data to guide instruction learner-friendly, meaning instructional pacing is responsive to individual differences How do you create change? Leadership is key to encouraging changes in teaching behaviors and in expectations, but changing how instruction occurs is a collaborative responsibility. Administrators and teachers work together making important school-level decisions. Student data are used to select materials, and activities are aligned with student strengths and needs. Additional resources are also made available for students requiring more intense intervention. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Differentiated Instruction 29

32 Differentiated Instruction Rallying commitment to change, gaining teacher confidence, and attracting participant buy-in, are critical to your success as a change-maker. Teachers and students will benefit most when you share current research and engage in conversations to communicate why change is needed. Professional development is needed to demonstrate how differentiation can occur in classrooms. Consider these suggestions when determining how to create change and implement differentiated instruction. Provide professional development that demonstrates how to disaggregate data and make critical decisions about student strengths and needs, how to group students for instruction, and how to select curricula and practice activities that are academically profitable. Select methods for progress monitoring to ensure that assessment is integrated with instruction and teaching is aligned to needs. Provide professional development that helps teachers establish routines and procedures for managing whole- and small-group instruction. Create a user-friendly timeline for implementing changes, allowing one to two weeks for teachers to focus on instruction management and, for that time, place less emphasis on academic achievement. Use walk-through observations and checklists to monitor changes in teaching and student performance. (See Appendix E.) Coach for success, praising teachers efforts and results while identifying ways to sustain change. Clearly communicating your expectations for differentiated instruction and providing support and coaching to teachers are critical to your overall success. Sharing the checklists will help teachers understand your expectations for improvement and provide opportunities for you to add constructive feedback from classroom observations. Why use whole-group and small-group instruction? It is nearly impossible to differentiate instruction in whole-class lecture formats because individual constructive feedback cannot be provided to a mass of students. However, wholeclass lecture formats are included in daily classroom routines. Teachers use whole-group lessons for introduction, modeling, or partnering to engage in quick reviews. Teachers introduce skills and model expectations in whole-group lessons. Such lessons should be limited to 20 minutes to maintain a perky pace for instruction and keep students engaged. Teachers use small groups to provide explicit instruction that is differentiated for student needs. In small groups, student engagement is higher because there are more opportunities to respond and receive constructive feedback. Skills that are critical for learning and mastery are taught in small groups to ensure comprehension and mastery. Observation in small groups allows teachers to closely monitor students progress and evaluate achievement. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Differentiated Instruction 30

33 Differentiated Instruction How do teachers group students for instruction? Teachers use data to assign students to three or four small groups. Each group works with the teacher every day. The length of each small-group lesson varies according to student needs. Students working at or above grade level may meet with the teacher for only 10 minutes while groups that include students who are struggling may meet for minutes. Students who require more intervention may meet with the teacher in a small group twice a day. Group memberships are flexible. Teachers use data to assign group memberships based on two things: instructional purpose and student needs. Choosing how to group students, either using similar-skill or mixed-skill groups, involves decision making. Teachers determine which grouping pattern efficiently uses instructional time and allows them to teach a lesson effectively. Initially, teachers guess at group memberships when no data are available. When routines are first being established, compatible groups work best. Typically, teaching activities occur with groups in which students share common strengths and needs. Most practice activities are completed in mixed-skill groupings so that students act as peer partners, talking quietly and sharing their thinking to enhance comprehension. How do teachers manage whole-group and small-group instruction? Teachers rotate small groups through activities according to a planned daily schedule that is posted in the classroom. Alternating time periods for whole-group and small-group instruction are listed on the daily schedule. Additional time periods may be needed each day to provide intense instruction for students who require more support. Establishing routines and procedures for time management helps teachers manage wholegroup and small-group rotations. Provide professional development that will help teachers develop these teaching tools: a Daily Schedule that includes alternating time periods for whole-group and small-group instruction a Job Chart that delegates jobs to students, creating more time for teachers to focus on effective delivery rather than management of the environment a Rotation Chart that guides students through planned activities by clearly communicating expectations How do you, as an administrator, know when instruction is differentiated? Differentiated instruction has a different delivery than traditional whole-class lecture formats. It is easy to see the difference. Daily schedules should include time periods for whole-group and small-group instruction. Instruction will include students working collaboratively on practice activities while the teacher provides explicit skills-focused lessons in another small group. What are the rest of the students doing while the teacher is working with one group? They may be working independently on assignments using previously taught skills or working collaboratively in small groups using more recently taught content or skills. Students provide feedback to each other when the teacher is unavailable or working with another group. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Differentiated Instruction 31

34 Differentiated Instruction When observing the classroom, you should see the teacher working with one small group and one or more of the following: students working collaboratively in other small groups students working independently or with a partner on previously taught skills students working collaboratively or independently on homework or written assignments, depending on how recently new content or skills were introduced How do you implement differentiated instruction? Administrative goals for differentiated instruction change weekly during early implementation. You begin by helping teachers establish campus-wide classroom routines and procedures. The suggestions that follow may be helpful for implementation. Remember, though, that teachers and student populations differ, so your expectations need to be not only flexible regarding deadlines for completing tasks, but also sensitive to the efforts people are making toward change. Prior to Week 1 Use data and research to communicate needs for making changes. Train teachers how to use data to inform instruction. Provide professional development that helps teachers develop routines and procedures for managing whole-group and small-group instruction. Provide time for teachers to develop teaching tools and make changes in classroom environments. Practice routines and role play what if situations, so teachers feel comfortable with the changes. Create and communicate expectations for implementation, including a reasonable timeline for success. Week 1 Have teachers focus on behavioral and environmental issues first. Have teachers use data, if available, to assign students in three or four small groups, carefully selecting students who are compatible behaviorally. Encourage teachers to assign activities and written work that require minimal supervision. Help teachers use whole-class activities to quickly review previously taught skills and small-group activities to build relationships and provide opportunities for students to demonstrate their proficiencies. Have teachers integrate assessment with instruction during small-group activities, closely observing and gathering information about student strengths and needs. Encourage teachers to model routines and procedures, encouraging students to comply with expectations. Coach toward success and brag about efforts and achievements. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Differentiated Instruction 32

35 Differentiated Instruction Week 2 Have teachers continue to set routines and procedures. Have them use data to reassign students to small groups as students needs change. Work with teachers to set pacing, so they meet with each small group every day. Have teachers differentiate instruction in small groups, using materials and activities selected to ensure meaningful instruction but move slowly. Weeks 3 4 Have teachers escalate the intensity of instruction in small groups. Have teachers encourage students to peer tutor and seek help from each other when their teacher is working with another group and is unavailable. Encourage teacher and student dialogue, with the teacher providing positive constructive feedback. Have teachers assign written activities for workstations or at students desks when sufficient instruction has occurred, so students can complete independent work successfully. Monitor changes and coach towards success. Evaluate teacher effectiveness, student learning, and program effectiveness to determine if curricula and activities are appropriate. Summary Implementing differentiated instruction is first a management issue; then a teaching issue. The routines and procedures for how to differentiate instruction must be established before teachers address what to teach. Excellent content poorly delivered will not work. Helping educators manage small-group and whole-group instruction is essential. Changing content delivery to differentiate instruction and using a gradual release of responsibility to students improves instructional effectiveness and student achievement. However, it does deviate significantly from traditional, whole-class lecture formats. Professional development that supports transition to differentiated instruction is needed for administrators and teachers. Administrative support is needed to encourage teachers to leave old habits behind and to risk making changes. Differentiating instruction works, but it takes a team effort to make it happen successfully in classrooms. Discussion Points and Questions To begin involving staff and faculty in discussions about differentiated instruction, you may want to present these questions: What does differentiated instruction look like in the classroom today? What student data can you get from small-group instruction that you cannot get from whole-group instruction? What are major obstacles to using small, flexible groups for instruction? The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Differentiated Instruction 33

36 Differentiated Instruction What areas of professional development would enhance your efforts to begin or to improve the use of flexible grouping for instruction? Over the next week, review your classroom setup and explore alternatives for easy movement of small, flexible groups throughout the day. Additional Resources See Appendix E: Handout E1: Sample Full-Day Schedule Handout E2: Sample Rotation Charts Handout E3: Checklist for Monitoring Instructional Time Handout E4: Checklist for Monitoring Classroom Environment Handout E5: Teacher/Classroom Observation Report Handout E6: Meeting Students Needs The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Differentiated Instruction 34

37 Effective Professional Development Leadership is lifting a person s vision to higher sights, the raising of a person s performance to a higher standard, the building of a personality beyond its normal limitations. Peter F. Drucker In this age of high-stakes accountability and expected student achievement, your teachers must be constantly learning more about what they teach and more about how students learn. Professional development plays a key role in today s nationwide effort to improve education and teacher quality by supporting teachers content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge, addressing curriculum and performance standards, and preparing teachers for an ever-changing classroom environment. Effective and appropriate professional development, can increase teachers knowledge and skills improve teachers attitudes increase teachers confidence change instructional practices improve student achievement But what constitutes effective professional development and how does it maximize student learning? Models of Professional Development Most models of professional development fall into one of three categories that may involve independent work and/or group participation: Independent Group Participation Onsite Online Blended Onsite: Professional development presented onsite is the traditional and most common form of professional development. Onsite programs are usually offered on school campuses, at district or county offices, at conferences, or on college campuses. Programs may take the form of workshops, lectures, and conferences. They are typically facilitated by one or two leaders who have expertise in a given area, such as early literacy or differentiated instruction. Other forms of onsite professional development include summer institutes and study groups, that is, groups of grade-level or department teachers who meet to research and discuss instructional strategies, curriculum materials, standards and assessment, or student learning. In study groups, originally modeled after the Japanese Lesson Study, teachers often work collaboratively to plan lessons, observe each other s instruction, and meet to discuss their observations and to refine lesson plans. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Effective Professional Development 35

38 Effective Professional Development Online: Professional development programs presented online, such as continuing education courses, are delivered via the Internet. These programs are often self-paced but may be scheduled through a district or school and may include moderated online discussion forums. New technologies allow these lessons to support streaming video and interactive applications tools, such as lesson planners, and activities designed to increase content knowledge. Some independent study options may include print components and media on CD-ROMs or DVDs. These are sometimes considered online programs, although strictly speaking, Internet access is not required. Blended: The blended approach to professional development is a combination of onsite and online components. Blended courses may include initial onsite workshops followed by online activities and/or assignments. Peer Coaching: Another model of professional development receiving increased interest is peer coaching. With this approach, teachers work together to plan lessons, discuss instructional strategies, observe each other s lessons, and provide feedback. With its focus on collaboration, peer coaching ameliorates the traditional isolated nature of teaching. When teachers participate in peer coaching, they are encouraged to analyze and reflect on their teaching practices and instructional effectiveness. Peer review is similar to peer coaching, but often includes some type of formal evaluation, completed by a mentor teacher during classroom observation. The Effects of Good Professional Development Good professional development can lead to positive changes in teaching practices and student performance. The key to good professional development is a consistent, high-quality, coordinated approach to content selection and delivery. Professional development can increase teachers knowledge and skills (content and pedagogy) and can produce positive changes in classroom practice when it is of a high quality and possesses several key characteristics (Desimone et al. 2001). The Desimone study analyzed Activity Type Duration Collective Participation Active Learning Coherence Content Focus Activity Type Professional development can be classified as either Reform or Traditional. The most common forms of professional development fall under the traditional classifications of workshops, courses, and conferences. These activities take place outside of the classroom and often outside of the school day. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Effective Professional Development 36

39 Effective Professional Development Reform activities include study groups, mentoring, peer coaching, teaching networks, and internships. Many reform activities take place during the school day, often during classroom instruction or planning time, and can be more responsive to teachers needs. Reform activities, such as peer coaching and study groups, are more likely to connect with the classroom teacher and are easier to sustain over time. Duration Duration involves both the amount of time spent on professional development activities and the span of time over which the professional development lasts. The longer the time spanned by the professional development, the more in-depth the learning and the discussions are. Providing longer professional development time also provides greater opportunity for teachers to try out new practices and to get feedback. Collective Participation Professional development can be more effective when groups of teachers from the same school participate together rather than when individual teachers from several schools participate. When there is collective participation, teachers are more likely to share ideas and discuss critical issues related to student learning. Active Learning Just as with students during classroom instruction, teachers participating in professional development can gain more knowledge when they are engaged in active learning. Professional development is more effective when the activities are engaging and provide a meaningful analysis of teaching and learning. Active learning includes observing lessons, reviewing student work and assessments, planning the use of new materials, making presentations, leading discussions, and producing written work (e.g., lesson plans or papers). Coherence Effective professional development needs to be part of a coherent program, one in which teachers experiences are incorporated within the larger educational programs at their schools. A coherent professional development program should be integrated into the daily life of the school build on what teachers already know or have recently learned be aligned to frameworks, standards, and assessments foster collaboration of teachers with similar goals be followed up with more advanced learning The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Effective Professional Development 37

40 Effective Professional Development Content Focus A key feature of effective professional development is a focus on deepening and improving teachers content knowledge. The three characteristics from this list that have been shown to contribute most significantly to positive results are (1) a focus on content knowledge, (2) opportunities for active learning, and (3) program coherence (Desimone et al. 2001). The other characteristics activity type, duration, and collaborative participation support the primary three. For example, reform activities generally take place over a long span of time. This provides greater opportunity for active learning, more coherence with other teachers and the larger educational program, a more in-depth content focus, and greater collaboration. The characteristics of duration and collective participation have similar impacts on active learning, content focus, and program coherence. Professional Learning Communities One effective form of support for professional development is the professional learning community (PLC). Participation in professional learning communities has been shown to positively change teaching practices and to increase student learning (Vescio, Ross, & Adams 2006). Effective PLCs embrace a collaborative work culture for teachers, with the aim of meeting the learning needs of students through the collaborative examination of day-to-day instructional practices. PLCs have the following characteristics: They involve shared values and precepts regarding student learning, school priorities, and the roles of administrators, teachers, and parents. They have clear and consistent focus on student learning. They empower teachers through a continuous learning process. They involve reflective discussions about curriculum, instruction, and student learning They decrease the isolation of the teaching experience. They focus on collaboration as new ideas are explored, current instructional practices are examined, and student learning is analyzed. They make extensive use of student data to drive discussions with the goal of sharing best practices that will improve student learning. PLCs that are associated with improvements in student achievement are those that engaged in structured, sustained, and supported instructional discussions and that investigated the relationships between instructional practices and student work (Vescio, Ross, & Adams 2006, 15). These professional learning communities positively impacted student achievement because they worked collaboratively and shared the common goal of enhancing student learning. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Effective Professional Development 38

41 Effective Professional Development Implementing Effective Professional Development Having specific curriculum and pedagogical goals and understanding the characteristics of high-quality professional development give you two keys to a successful professional development program. It is also critically important for you to provide sufficient time for teachers to complete the activities and to have an opportunity to implement their new knowledge and skills in the classroom. The most successful programs also foster teacher communication and collaboration and provide time for it. Identify and Select the Best Programs Keep in mind that no single workshop or in-service constitutes a professional development program. A good professional development plan will incorporate a variety of content and lesson formats that are selected to meet the specific needs of your school or district. Characteristics of the highest-quality professional development include: Clear expectations Teachers know what will happen at the training sessions and what extension activities will take place after training. Professional learning communities Professional development is centered around an existing or new professional learning community among teachers at each school. Collaboration Teachers are provided numerous opportunities to collaborate with peers who share similar goals and needs. Modeling Programs follow the process of Learn it, See it modeled, and Practice it. Teachers will learn new content and pedagogy, see it modeled in an authentic classroom setting, and practice new strategies in their own classrooms while being observed and receiving feedback. Increased knowledge The content of the program must deepen both content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge of teachers. Adequate resources All necessary resources are made available to participants, including time, staff, materials, and administrative support. Student data The program incorporates student data into the goals and activities of the program. Long-term commitment Effective professional development does not take place quickly. For a program to be effective, you, other administrators, and the school community as a whole must expect to make a long-term commitment. Focus on student learning The ultimate goal of any professional development program is to improve student learning. The most successful professional development programs are those that have a clear and sustained focus on that goal. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Effective Professional Development 39

42 Effective Professional Development Minimize the Obstacles A variety of attitudes and events can disrupt the best professional development plan. A successful plan will anticipate obstacles and adjust for them. Common obstacles to effective professional development include: cost intensive use of resources and time that drain other programs lack of accountability after training teacher turnover traveling great distances to participate a program fragmented in its approach lack of a coherent curriculum work that is piecemeal content that is too simplistic a program that tries to address too many topics at once lack of focus either on content or student learning poor scheduling (e.g., planning professional development on the day that grades must be submitted) failure to include teacher input or to consider the needs of teachers when developing the professional development program poor or unprepared presenters The Process Just as there is a process for delivering effective instruction to students, there is a process for providing effective professional development to teachers: 1. Set Goals The plan should focus on student learning and should incorporate student data Learn The program should increase teachers content and pedagogical knowledge. Model As part of professional development, teachers should have an opportunity to see what good teaching looks like in the classroom. Practice Teachers must have opportunities to try new strategies in their own classrooms and to receive support and feedback. Refine You must be prepared to adjust the plan as needed, giving teachers time for ongoing practice with new strategies and support from mentors, coaches, and peers. You and your planning team should continually monitor the professional development program, asking yourselves if the goals for the program are being addressed: Is there sustained focus on student learning? Are teachers improving their content and pedagogical knowledge? Do teachers have sufficient opportunities to collaborate? And, are the new skills being transferred to the classroom? The success of a professional development program hinges on the planning, the process, and the support that is provided. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Effective Professional Development 40

43 Effective Professional Development The Role of Administrator Support The importance of your support to ensure a successful professional development program cannot be overemphasized. As an administrator, you must create and sustain an environment of schools as learning communities, where everyone learns. As a leader, you need to model and encourage the culture of collaboration and collegiality. You must support peer interaction and create a work climate in which teachers are comfortable taking risks and asking for help. Involvement with and support of the teaching staff is critical because teacher attitude is critical to the success of any professional development program. Negative attitudes allowed to fester can undermine the best professional development plans. Successful professional development programs are led by administrators who provide the time and support that are necessary to ensure a positive, sustained, and collaborative effort. Understanding the various types of professional development can help you make appropriate selections of content and formats to best meet the needs of your schools, teachers, and students. You will lead the teams that identify and set goals for the professional development, keeping student data and learning at the focal point of the goal-setting process. And it is you, the administrator, who will need to evaluate the results of the professional development in terms of meeting the established goals. Evaluating Effective Professional Development The Student: In the final analysis, the effectiveness of a professional development program can be evaluated by whether it improves student learning. A good program may accomplish many other goals such as increasing teachers knowledge or improving school environment, but in the end, the program must support student learning. Thus the goals for the program and the way it is evaluated must include the use of student data. Baseline data will help establish program goals, and evaluation data will include some measurement(s) of student progress. The Teacher: Improvement in teachers instructional practices, content knowledge, and attitudes should also result from an effective professional development program. You may want to use various self-reporting assessments of instructional practices or other selfevaluations to collect baseline and evaluation data on teachers. Observational data can also be gathered to track changes that result from professional development. (See Appendix F for a Professional Development Checklist.) Another form of teacher evaluation is the teacher portfolio for which a teacher selects exemplary work lesson plans, student projects, and student assessments that best represents the outcomes of instructional practices and performance. Teacher portfolios can be reviewed by mentor teachers, peers, and administrators. Positive changes in teachers knowledge and behavior and positive changes in student performance are the ultimate outcomes of good professional development. These outcomes are supported by a focused selection process that encompasses clear goals and clear program criteria. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Effective Professional Development 41

44 Effective Professional Development References Garet, M. S., Porter, A. C., Desimone, L., Birman, B. F., and Yoon, K. S. What Makes Professional Development Effective? Results from a National Sample of Teachers. American Educational Research Journal 38, no. 4 (Winter 2001): Vescio, V., Ross, D., and Adams, A. A review of research on professional learning communities: What do we know? Paper presented at the NSRF Research Forum, Seattle, WA, January Wisconsin Center for Education Research, School of Education, University of Wisconsin- Madison, WCER Highlights 15 no. 1 (Spring 2003). Discussion Points and Questions To begin involving staff and faculty in discussions about effective professional development, you may want to present these questions: What are the format strengths and weaknesses of professional development programs you have participated in? In your experience, what are major obstacles to effective professional development that we have to address? What student data should we use to determine priorities for professional development? What are your concerns about classroom management, instructional strategies, and technology? Are they issues to address in our professional development program? How can we increase collaboration that is focused on instructional strategies and student learning? Over the next week, think about how we can allow for more reflective discussions about curriculum and instruction among teachers. Additional Resources See Appendix F: Handout F1: Professional Development Checklist Handout F2: Professional Development Survey Handout F3: The Role of Collaboration The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Effective Professional Development 42

45 English Language Learners in the Classroom Leadership should be born out of the understanding of the needs of those who would be affected by it. Marian Anderson English language learners (ELLs) come from every corner of the globe, represent hundreds of different languages, and can be found in nearly every school district in the United States. They arrive at school, eager to learn, but facing an immense challenge: the need to acquire a new language while simultaneously mastering grade-level curriculum standards. As an administrator, you can help ELLs succeed by understanding their unique needs and by providing support and leadership to those who will teach these students. You can create a culture in which cultural backgrounds, language proficiency levels, and the languagedevelopment process inform teaching. Defining the English Language Learner The terms used to describe them are as diverse as English language learners themselves: English learners (ELs), language minority students, second language learners, and limited English proficient (LEP). Whatever they are called, these students are learning English in addition to their first language, or native tongue. Leaders planning for ELL instruction need specific information about the ELL populations in their schools. The many myths about English language learners may create misperceptions about these students, so you may want to begin by sharing these facts with your teachers and administrators: Not all ELLs are immigrants. Fifty-nine percent are U.S.-born children of immigrant parents. 1 Nearly 20% of all ELLs have parents who are also U.S.-born but who speak at home a language other than English. Some schools and communities have relatively homogenous populations of ELLs, with most sharing the same culture and language. In other communities, ELLs may represent a wide variety of languages and cultures. You can support teachers instructional planning by providing relevant data about the makeup of ELL populations in their schools. Information that would be useful to teachers includes: language proficiency level(s) the language(s) spoken at home circumstances of arrival and length of time in the United States first language literacy and prior schooling experiences Cultural Considerations for Teaching ELLs English language learners often encounter a set of cultural norms and expectations in school that are different from the ones followed at home or in their native countries. The differences must affect the way teachers build on existing knowledge or experiences. Teachers must make efforts to connect new and previously learned information for students who do not share the same cultural background as themselves or their native-born students. The more 1 Reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of U.S. Council of La Raza, The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide English Language Learners in the Classroom 43

46 English Language Learners in the Classroom teachers know about their students cultures, the better they will be able to help those students make the transition from home to school and from their first language to English. With knowledge about students cultures, teachers can tailor instructional strategies to accommodate known learning preferences (e.g., collaborative vs. independent work) respect cultural habits (e.g., averting one s eyes when being spoken to) avoid cultural taboos (e.g., mixing Muslim boys and girls in the same group) consider the background knowledge needed to understand a reading selection, classroom examples, anecdotes, or idiomatic expressions explain unfamiliar concepts where necessary Having knowledge about and respect for the various cultures represented in a classroom helps teachers build trusting relationships with students and their families. Knowledge can minimize misunderstandings that arise out of cultural distinctions. It is important, however, to keep in mind that societies are made up of individuals. General knowledge about a culture should not be used to form stereotypes. Rather, this knowledge should be treated as a reference point. Teachers must get to know individual students and their families to make learning accessible to all students. Language Proficiency English language proficiency refers to how well learners speak, listen, read, and write in English. A student s language proficiency level determines the level of participation that can be expected during oral discussions performance tasks appropriate for student work types of activities best suited to the learner teaching strategies that facilitate learning learning strategies students can use to support their own learning Language proficiency will grow continuously, therefore, it is essential that teachers assess each student s language competency regularly. Proficiency is multifaceted, encompassing the production and reception of oral and written communication. Production (speaking) Oral Reception (listening) Production (writing) Written Reception (reading) Students skills will not develop at equal rates. For example, at a given point in time, a student may possess a higher level of proficiency in speaking than in reading. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide English Language Learners in the Classroom 44

47 English Language Learners in the Classroom Proficiency Levels Defined Proficiency is categorized in progressive stages or levels. Among the states and school districts across the United States, the levels may be defined differently. For the purposes of this discussion, proficiency is described below in four progressive levels. Level One Beginning Students are new learners and possess early language skills. In the classroom, these students will rely initially on watching and listening to develop speaking skills and to build English proficiency. Students will begin to grasp small chunks of language. Level Two Advanced Beginning Students possess early production skills, but receptive skills still outperform production. At this and all stages, it is critical that students continue to listen to proficient English speakers and that they are introduced to appropriate amounts of academic language for their developmental level. Level Three Intermediate Students now possess a vocabulary and knowledge of grammatical structures sufficient for full participation, with support, in most classroom activities. Learners are generally more comfortable producing both spoken and written language, though they still require focused language development instruction. Level Four Advanced Students possess vocabulary and grammar approaching that of English-proficient peers. Students can be expected to participate fully in class activities and produce gradeappropriate work. Social language skills are now native-like and will continue to outstrip academic language proficiency. Daily opportunities to experience, practice, and learn academic language in context continue to be necessary. Students will be able to respond with one- to two-word phrases understand simple questions, statements, or commands use vocabulary limited to communicating basic needs use nonverbal forms of communication begin to apply basic phonemic awareness and phonics when reading Students respond with short phrases and sentences are developing basic English syntax display a limited social and academic vocabulary read and write simple sentences Students are able to respond using complete sentences grasp basic English syntax, with interference from the first-language grammatical structures still appearing use a growing academic vocabulary read and write more complex sentences, short paragraphs, and brief essays or narratives Students have command of spoken English understand and use academic vocabulary read near grade level with occasional modifications write more complex paragraphs and essays, with additional supports still required The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide English Language Learners in the Classroom 45

48 English Language Learners in the Classroom Teaching to Different Language Proficiency Levels Teachers may have students at multiple proficiency levels in any single class. However, all levels of English language learners benefit from a language-rich environment that includes both oral and written language. A language-rich environment means quality literature at all applicable proficiency levels is available for reading word walls are used regularly to reinforce vocabulary word cards are used, as appropriate, to label items in the classroom (e.g., door, window, chair, or desk) visual aids are abundant, including maps, charts, graphs, timelines, photos, and illustrations opportunities for oral discussion in small groups occur frequently throughout the day. Differentiated instruction should be used routinely to meet the needs of students at various proficiency levels. A teacher who is differentiating instruction for ELLs will use leveled materials that allow students to work on content mastery at the appropriate proficiency levels use mixed-ability groups to allow English-proficient students and ELLs to work together make time for teacher-led, small groups for targeted skill instruction (See Appendix G for suggested checklists that you may use during walk-through observations in classrooms.) Language Proficiency and Content Standards Proficiency levels reflect where students are in the language-development process. They are used to inform teaching, not to dictate curriculum. In some classrooms, content is watered down and expectations are lowered for ELL students. This approach does not help these students. In your role as a school leader, encourage teachers to maintain the same high expectations for ELLs as for English proficient students. If your teachers understand that a standards-based, rigorous curriculum will create a culture of success, ELL students will have an opportunity to receive a quality education. Language acquisition and instruction should occur in the context of classroom instruction in the content areas. 2 Effective teaching of ELL students blends language learning and content teaching to achieve academic proficiency in state standards. Performance indicators should dovetail with grade-level content standards and identify appropriate demonstrations of mastery, based on proficiency level. Thus, expectations for ELLs are rigorous by definition. (For an example of a comprehensive approach to language and content standards, see those created by the WIDA Consortium. 3 ) 2 Chamot, A. U., and O Malley, J. M. The CALLA handbook: Implementing the cognitive academic language learning approach. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, Echevarria, J., Vogt, M.E., and Short, D. Making content comprehensible for English language learners: The SIOP model. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, WIDA Consortium. English Language Proficiency Standards for English Language Learners in Kindergarten through Grade 12. State of Wisconsin, The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide English Language Learners in the Classroom 46

49 English Language Learners in the Classroom Language Dimensions Intermediate and advanced ELLs may display sophisticated social language skills. They can be seen in hallways, on the bus, and on the playground conversing fluidly with peers in English. However, in class, these same students struggle to discuss, read, or write academic content. It is helpful when trying to understand the discrepancies between these dimensions of language to look at some theories behind language acquisition. Language researcher Jim Cummins 4 suggests a framework in which the cognitive and contextual demands of language and discourse play a role in acquisition. Cummins describes a continuum in which language learners move from (and between) situations that are less cognitively demanding because understanding is supported by meaningful contexts and situational cues, to those that are more cognitively demanding because contextual support is scant and the learner must rely primarily on linguistic clues to determine meaning. Social language (Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills) may be acquired more rapidly because it is less cognitively demanding than academic language (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency). Cummins 5 also describes a third dimension of language proficiency that is important in academic situations Discrete Language Skills. Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) BICS are used in everyday conversations and social interactions occurring outside of the classroom, interactions such as those between friends on the bus, in the lunchroom, on the playground, communication about essential needs such as food or shelter, or discussions about shared experiences. Social language skills are developed in the learner s primary language, and thus they may translate to another language rapidly. These skills take English language learners, on average, 2 3 years to develop. 6 Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) CALP is the form of academic language needed for success in the classroom. It is used by teachers and students to communicate ideas about subject area content. It occurs in the more formal setting of the classroom and is often read by the student or presented by a teacher or peer. Vocabulary that is content-specific is rarely used outside of the context of school or possibly even outside of an individual lesson. In academic situations, ELLs must learn a variety of complex terms, including: multiple-meaning words content-specific (technical) vocabulary academic language, such as compare, summarize, and analyze 4 Cummins, J. Bilingualism and Special Education: Issues in assessment and pedagogy. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters., Cummins, J. Reading and the bilingual student: Fact and friction. English learners: Reaching the highest level of English literacy, (2003): Cummins, J. Age on arrival and immigrant second language learning in Canada. A reassessment. Applied Linguistics 2 (1981): l32 l49. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide English Language Learners in the Classroom 47

50 English Language Learners in the Classroom Cummins hypothesizes that having academic language proficiency in the first language may predict greater success for acquiring proficiency in the second language. CALP develops at the same time as BICS but usually more slowly. Although some researchers believe CALP can take five or more years, depending on the student s first-language academic experiences, others feel that appropriate programs and rigorous instruction may hasten its development. Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills Competence develops between years 1 3. Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency Competence develops between years Discrete Language Skills (DLS) Developed concurrently with BICS and CALP are Discrete Language Skills, which refer to a learner s knowledge of how the more discrete aspects of language function in English. These are skills in areas such as punctuation, grammar, phonology, and written language. Knowledge of these skills is essential, and success in school will be dependent, in part, on their acquisition. Students knowledge of DLS should grow with exposure to English, but direct instruction and opportunities to practice them will support their development. Addressing Academic Language Proficiency The distinctions among these language dimensions sheds light on the differing types of language proficiency that teachers often observe in their ELLs. It also points out the need for teachers of ELLs to focus on the academic language and discrete language skills needed by their students. Encourage your teachers to take the time to teach, directly and indirectly, academic and content-specific vocabulary, prior to starting a new unit provide reinforcement and frequent opportunities for practice throughout the unit teach, directly and indirectly, students rules for grammar, punctuation, and text (Note, that this should not be overemphasized at the expense of other aspects of language.) Teachers can support academic language development in many ways. Ensure that they choose strategies that are dynamic and involve students in an active examination of new language. Teachers can preteach vocabulary prior to starting a new unit or assigning a reading selection include frequent small group discussions throughout the day incorporate word-study activities (e.g., word sorts, finding synonyms, or word analysis) into regular instruction use concrete examples, realia (real-life objects), and hands-on activities teach strategies for dealing with unknown vocabulary (e.g., context clues, root words, affixes, and prefixes) The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide English Language Learners in the Classroom 48

51 English Language Learners in the Classroom To achieve academic success, English language learners need frequent opportunities to practice academic language. Teachers should keep in mind that academic language development can be a lengthy process, a process that demands their constant attention. Summary Even in schools with small numbers of English language learners, students benefit from effective planning and collaboration among teachers. Supportive and encouraging leadership from you and other school and district administrators is critical. School leaders must ensure that classroom teachers understand the issues and the instructional solutions. For ELLs, language acquisition is a journey that ranges from social expression to academic exploration and discourse. Understanding that ELLs need high expectations for learning and deserve a rigorous curriculum will improve outcomes for these students. Teachers must differentiate their instruction to help ELLs master grade-level content standards. Fortunately, the strategies and activities teachers use for ELLs can benefit all learners, who also bring to the classroom a range of needs and abilities. English language learners have much to offer American classrooms, from making cultural contributions to academic achievements. Their attendance in our schools offers an opportunity to create a culture of success for all. References Chamot, A. U., and O Malley, J. M. The CALLA Handbook: Implementing the cognitive academic language learning approach. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, Cummins, J. Age on arrival and immigrant second language learning in Canada. A reassessment. Applied Linguistics 2 (1981): l32 l49. Cummins, J. Bilingualism and Special Education: Issues in assessment and pedagogy. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters, Cummins, J. Language, Power and Pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters, Echevarria, J., Vogt, M. E., and Short, D. Making Content Comprehensible for English Language Learners: The SIOP Model. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, Kohler, Adriana, and Lazarin, Melissa. Hispanic Education in the United States. Statistical Brief. National Council of La Raza, Snow, M. A., & Brinton, D. M. (Eds.) The Content-Based Classroom: Perspectives on integrating language and content. White Plains, NY: Addison-Wesley, WIDA Consortium. English Language Proficiency Standards for English Language Learners in Kindergarten through Grade 12. State of Wisconsin, The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide English Language Learners in the Classroom 49

52 English Language Learners in the Classroom Discussion Points and Questions When you meet with your faculty, ask discussion questions such as the following to begin a dialogue on the needs of English language learners: What are some challenges you face for providing effective instruction to your English language learners? What background data or cultural information would help you in your classroom? How do you judge the level of English proficiency of each of your ELL students? What strategies are helpful for developing academic and content vocabulary knowledge, both of which are critically important for success? What are some ways that we can maintain a rigorous curriculum for ELL students and provide the language support they need to achieve success? Over the next week, observe how your ELL students respond to different instructional strategies and consider where they need the most support. Additional Resources See Appendix G: Handout: Observational Checklist for Student Language Proficiency Level Handout: Observational Checklist: Instructional Strategies Appropriate to Each Proficiency Level Activity: A Language-Rich Experience Activity: Social Communication and Academic Language Skills The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide English Language Learners in the Classroom 50

53 Standards-Based Instruction Excellence is achieved by the mastery of fundamentals. Vince Lombardi, Coach Looking Back In the same way a lighthouse provides direction and focus, state curriculum standards provide educational guidance to schools throughout the United States. Initially, there were some objections to the movement towards standardized curricula; today, however, most states have developed, published, and implemented their own standards. Even districts within states incorporate their own standards within district curriculum guides and expect them to be embedded in the instructional routines of teachers. The push toward Standards-Based Instruction started in 1983, when the U.S. Department of Education s National Committee on Excellence in Education published A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform. This report raised public awareness of the failures in American education. Global competition also influenced educational reform and the development of standards when it was revealed that U.S. student test scores were lower than student test scores in Asia and Europe. U.S. educators identified some clear differences in educational practices between the United States and other countries. The countries with consistently high student performance not only had higher student performance standards, but their standards were also carefully aligned to both instructional materials and assessments. The alignment of these three elements standards, instructional materials, and assessments would become the cornerstone of the reform movement in the United States. As a response to the international studies, the Goals 2000: Educate America Act called for the development of content and student performance standards. Opponents argued there was no need for standards, as teachers used goals and objectives to focus and plan their instruction. While this may have been a valid argument for individual classrooms, the variance of programs from classroom to classroom and district to district made it difficult to have a unified state-wide curriculum. A systematic, sequential plan was needed to establish and prioritize educational standards, to unify instruction, and to communicate goals or standards to all stakeholders in the educational process. Without a unifying plan, the choice of classroom practices was somewhat analogous to students selecting their own textbooks. Imagine each student in a classroom trying to learn the same content from a different text. Would students leave the class knowing the same content? Would they master the same vocabulary? Would they develop the same skills? How could they be prepared for the next grade level, especially if their next teacher selected his or her own goals and objectives? In 2001, The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) increased the accountability for learning for both educators and students. This new level of accountability required a well-orchestrated, clearly communicated plan for educators of each district, one with a common set of standards that would govern what must be taught. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Standards-Based Instruction 51

54 Standards-Based Instruction Content standards were developed to identify the knowledge and concepts that students should master for each subject at each grade level. The standards defined what students were expected to know and to be able to do. Associated performance standards asked that students demonstrate their mastery of both content and skills. To achieve the goals established by the content and performance standards, districts implemented standardsbased instruction. Applications of Standards-Based Instruction Over the years, the standards movement has changed the routines and practices of all educators. Like the educators in those countries with consistently high student performance, educators in the United States strive to align curriculum, instruction, and assessment. Appropriate assessment is critical to standards-based instruction and is a prominent component of NCLB. Teachers are now encouraged to use assessment to inform instruction. Data-driven instruction, based on high-stakes assessment, is encouraged, so many districts frequently redesign or refocus their instructional plans based on assessment data. (See the article Principles of Data-Driven Instruction for more information on the role of assessment.) Most teachers, if asked to define their curriculum, would make some reference to standards. Standards, curriculum guides or frameworks, and curriculum materials are common elements in most district curriculum plans. For teachers, content standards clarify the what to teach, while performance standards inform the how to teach. With standards in place throughout the United States, one might assume that schools would have standardized content and instruction. In truth, instructional plans and practices still differ among states, districts, and schools. While standards have educators communicating with the same language, instruction across districts and by individual teachers can vary widely. And when these instructional differences are used to meet students learning needs, the differences can have good results. The case study that follows shows one district s approach to standards-based instruction. CASE STUDY: One District s Approach to Standards-Based Instruction The Issues When standards were introduced in the district, there was resistance on the part of teachers. As teachers read through the standards, some could not locate skills and strategies they were familiar with, so they questioned whether the standards were appropriate for their grade levels. On a personal level, the changes threatened the teachers existing lesson plans and instructional materials. As one teacher stated, I feel like I m starting all over again. In reality, things had changed. Teachers felt awkward and tentative about the new standards. They had previously been able to quote grade-level expectations from the district curriculum guide, but now they were uncertain about expected content instruction. To make matters worse, students were having difficulties with the new expectations; it was taking longer for students to master the content contained in the new standards. And these were only the surface issues the teachers could identify. It was clear that the district needed a way to approach and resolve the issues raised by the teachers. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Standards-Based Instruction 52

55 Standards-Based Instruction Getting Started District leaders listened carefully to the teachers and responded with a plan of action. They understood that providing the support needed for transition and change was the first step toward success. School leaders knew that standards were here to stay and that the successful integration of the revised curriculum would be directly correlated to teachers acceptance and implementation of standards-based instruction. School leaders researched and analyzed the problems voiced by the teachers before they reacted to them. Their analysis included classroom observations, surveys, and face-to-face meetings during which they discussed the perceived problems. Their conclusions included the following: The new standards reflected a shift in instruction at most grade levels. Students lacked some prerequisite knowledge, skills, and concepts required by the new standards. Existing curriculum materials did not support all of the new content and performance standards. New materials were needed. Teachers needed more information about the new standards and a chance to develop a sense of ownership. The District Plan District leaders decided to focus on conclusions 1, 2, and 4. The district staff developed workshops to increase teachers understanding of the standards and to help teachers identify changes in grade-level content and actual or potential gaps in students prerequisite knowledge or skills. This hands-on approach to the standards training directly involved teachers in the problem-solving process. A secondary advantage to this approach was that teachers were able to help the district update its existing curriculum guide which did not reflect the new standards. The district prioritized the content for the workshops. Instead of working on the entire curriculum, reading/language arts and mathematics standards were addressed the first year. Other subject areas were scheduled for review in subsequent years. The standards-based instruction workshops were site-based with every teacher required to participate. Meetings were held during normal school hours or during times originally scheduled for professional development or staff meetings. The first round of meetings was grade-level specific with teachers analyzing the standards for their grade levels. The guidelines for the grade-level meetings were as follows: Review the content and performance standards for the grade level. Identify the standards that were particularly difficult for students. Analyze the difficult standards to identify specific areas of difficulty prerequisite skills and concepts extended skills and concepts 4. Create a document that identified the difficult standards, the associated prerequisites, and the extension concepts for use in future meetings with cross-grade-level teams. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Standards-Based Instruction 53

56 Standards-Based Instruction Because the district recognized that enthusiastic leadership would be critical during the initial grade-level workshops, a knowledgeable leader, such as a reading specialist or coach, was assigned to each meeting. The leaders modeled or guided the process, provided information to the groups, and kept the meetings focused and on track. After teachers became familiar with the meeting routines and purpose, leaders transferred responsibility to the teachers. A Fourth-Grade Teacher Meeting After identifying the problem standards, the teachers met to work through the process of unpacking their standards. During this activity, teachers identified all of the discrete elements skills, strategies, and concepts within each standard. They discussed what students needed to know and what skills they needed to be proficient in the standard. For example: Compare and contrast information on the same topic after reading several passages or articles. Read and understand informational, expository text. Read across texts for information (requires analysis and synthesis from multiple sources). Distinguish main idea and supporting details in expository text. Compare information across text, including expository text. Contrast information across text, including expository text. The analysis of grade-level standards provided teachers with a horizontal view of the standards. After the teachers clearly understood what was required of their students, they were prepared to develop instructional plans. (A benefit provided by the grade-level meetings was an opportunity to share lesson planning.) As the fourth-grade teachers worked through their tasks, they learned to look at the context of the standard to identify the students problems. They determined that the difficulty of this standard was not in the content but in the student performance expectation. The standard relied heavily upon students ability to identify multiple ideas across multiple informational, expository texts. Their students were not proficient readers of expository text. Next, the fourth-grade teachers decided to examine the standards for grades three and five. They were surprised to find gaps among the grades. For example, fourth grade was the only grade level in which students were required to compare and contrast informational or expository texts. They found that the grade-three standard for text features included simple items such as titles, subheadings, and glossaries while the grade-four expectations required complex text structures such as compare and contrast or cause and effect. Once again, the difficulty focused on students ability to read and comprehend expository text, a more challenging read than informational text. A Cross-Grade-Level Teacher Meeting After identifying the relevant issues with this standard, the fourth-grade teachers were prepared for a cross-grade-level meeting. The chart that follows, developed in the fourth-grade meeting, was used in the cross-grade level workshop to clarify the elements within this standard. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Standards-Based Instruction 54

57 Standards-Based Instruction Grade 4 Standard: Compare and contrast information on the same topic after reading several passages or articles. Prerequisite Skills and Concepts Third Grade Fourth-Grade Standard Skills and Concepts Extended Skills and Concepts Fifth Grade Compare information from several sources. Read across informational texts. Distinguish main idea and supporting details in expository text. Read and understand informational and expository text. Compare information across text, including expository text. Contrast information across text, including expository text. Read across texts for information (requires analysis and synthesis of information from multiple sources). Distinguish main idea and supporting details in expository text. Read and understand informational, expository text. Analyze text. Use main idea in text and support the evidence of those ideas and concepts. Read across texts (requires analysis and synthesis of information). Distinguish facts and supported inferences in text. Understand how text features are used in informational text. The cross-grade-level meetings provided an opportunity to explore the third-grade and fifthgrade standards and expectations. In the meetings, the fourth-grade teachers were able to explain the elements of their standards, including the prerequisite and extended skills. As the teachers compared the skills and concepts of their grades with teachers of the grades before and after, they were able to see the vertical alignment of standards. As they recognized the importance of vertical alignment in planning instruction, the third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade teachers worked together to prioritize the standards and skills they would address in their instruction. As a result of this planning, they were able to identify and address gaps in students knowledge and skills include important materials, such as the expository text, in their instruction plan lessons and instruction directed toward the standards align assessment and instruction Results and Conclusions Teachers in this district met throughout the year to analyze their new standards and to develop instructional plans. For most teachers, acceptance of the standards occurred when they began to unpack them and to look for solutions to the gaps they identified in student learning. By involving teachers in the process of analysis, the district promoted teacher ownership of both standards and curriculum. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Standards-Based Instruction 55

58 Standards-Based Instruction During their first year of standards implementation, teachers made great strides in identifying and addressing student needs. The work accomplished during the cross-grade-level meetings enabled them to align instruction to standards both horizontally and vertically. Their shared ability to develop instructional solutions for instructional gaps improved student learning. The teachers became the curriculum builders of their district. Teacher ownership of curriculum and content was the outcome, and the district moved from individual teacher goals and objectives to a collective we approach to standards-based instruction. These were only the first steps for this district, but all participants recognized immediate, positive results: focus, communication, equity, and alignment. Discussion Points and Questions To begin involving faculty in discussions about standards-based instruction, you may want to present these questions: What does standards-based instruction mean to you as a teacher? Do our standards and frameworks have clarity so that you can plan lessons and instruction directed toward the standards? Can you align instruction with assessment? Which standards are most difficult for students and most difficult to provide instruction for? Is it clear what the prerequisite skills are for these standards? Do our standards have clear and effective vertical alignment so that students come to you with a good base for the instruction you need to provide? Do you have an understanding of the expectations for the next grade up? Over the next week, as you review standards and consider students instructional needs, determine which standards, strands, or grades need to be analyzed for clarification. Additional Resources See Appendix H: Activity H1: Standards for Students Activity H2: Features of Standards-Based Instruction The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Standards-Based Instruction 56

59 Principles of Data-Driven Instruction Education in our times must try to find whatever there is in students that might yearn for completion, and to reconstruct the learning that would enable them autonomously to seek that completion. Allan Bloom Linda Thompson The term data-driven instruction refers to a teacher s use of the results from various student assessments to plan instruction. Research has shown this process to be an effective way to improve student achievement. What is required for data-driven instruction? Several requirements are necessary to achieve good data-driven instruction: Baseline data that gives a good sense of where students are at the beginning of the year; these data often come from the prior year s state test because schools are held accountable by such tests. Clear goals for what students are expected to learn and to achieve; these goals are usually related to state standards and grade-level expectations. Goals may also be specific to improved performance on the state test, for example, raising the percentage of students scoring Proficient or higher in mathematics from 67% last year to 84% this year. Regular assessments across the school year; frequent assessments provide multiple pieces of evidence about student knowledge and skills. Such assessments help to benchmark students progress across the school year. Well-focused and well-planned instruction that is based on evidence; these data show what students know and are able to do and what they still need to learn. What kinds of tests inform data-driven instruction? You will find that you can use a variety of tests for data-driven instruction, but all of them should be reliable, valid, and aligned to the standards, concepts, and skills students are expected to learn. These standards-aligned tests can include state tests and benchmark tests that are administered several times each year and cover all standards. You can even use chapter or unit tests that assess a specific standard or subset of standards. How do you use the tests to inform instruction? Start with a Class Summary of Test Results. The Class Summary should report results in terms of the applicable standards and should have specific information about the gradelevel expectations and even what the test items addressed. The following sample shows a small portion of a Class Summary and includes percentages of items answered correctly for each skill and the average percentage for each Strand. From a Class Summary, you can identify strands in which students did well and those in which they had difficulty. A plan of instruction can be based on information from a Class Summary. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Principles of Data-Driven Instruction 57

60 Principles of Data-Driven Instruction Class Summary of Test Results Strand: Reading (64%) Comprehension Determine a text s main (or major) ideas and how those ideas are supported with details. (80%) Distinguish fact and opinion in various texts. (71%) Find similarities and differences across texts, such as, in treatment, scope, or organization. (44%) Paraphrase and summarize text to recall, inform, and organize ideas. (65%) Literary Concepts Identify the purposes of different types of texts, such as to inform, influence, express, or entertain. (49%) Recognize the distinguishing features of genres, including biography, historical fiction, informational texts, and poetry. (76%) Understand and identify literary terms, such as title, author, illustrator, playwright, theater, stage, act, dialogue, and scene, across a variety of literary forms (texts). (66%) Strand: Writing (64%) Writing process Generate ideas and plans for writing by using such prewriting strategies as brainstorming, graphic organizers, notes, and logs. (79%) Develop drafts by categorizing ideas, organizing them into paragraphs, and blending paragraphs within larger units of text. (69%) Revise drafts for coherence, progression, and logical support of ideas. (69%) Edit drafts for specific purposes, such as to ensure standard usage, varied sentence structure, and appropriate word choice. (39%) Proofread his or her own writing and that of others. (41%) Inquiry/Research Frame questions to direct research. (34%) Summarize and organize ideas gained from multiple sources in useful ways, such as outlines, conceptual maps, learning logs, and timelines. (42%) Organize prior knowledge about a topic in a variety of ways, such as producing a graphic organizer. (85%) Evaluation Analyze published examples as models for writing. (92%) Review a collection of written works to determine its strengths and weaknesses and to set goals as a writer. (85%) The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Principles of Data-Driven Instruction 58

61 Principles of Data-Driven Instruction What is the process for achieving data-driven instruction? First: Target areas where students are having difficulty. This is basically a sorting exercise to identify strengths areas in which the class as a whole did quite well challenges areas in which the class did fairly well but were not strong critical needs areas in which the class did not perform well The sample Class Summary shows that students struggle with finding similarities and differences across texts (in Comprehension) and editing their own work for sentence structure, usage, and word choice (in Writing Process). The sorting is not based simply on which strands received the highest or lowest scores. It is based on criteria that place class performances into three categories. Typically, you look at the average percentage of all items answered correctly in each strand and apply predetermined criteria. For example: Strength: 80% or higher Most students were able to answer correctly the majority of questions on the tested content. Challenge: 65% 79% Most students had a moderate understanding of the tested content. Critical Need: less than 65% Most students struggled with the tested content. To select targets for data-driven instruction, start with the Critical Needs strands. In the sample, the strands for Reading (64%) and Writing (64%) both qualify as Critical Needs. Next, you will select standards or grade-level expectations within those strands for intervention. It is usually more effective to target improvement efforts on a limited number of concepts, so focus intervention on two or three areas. Second: Focus on specific needs. After identifying the Critical Needs strands, drill down within a strand. Look at the grade-level expectations and do an item analysis of the skills and concepts. In the targeted strands, are there specific skills or concepts your students understand? Can you build on instruction using those skills? Are there specific areas in which students have difficulty? What are the weakest areas? Drilling down inside a strand to specific grade-level expectations or standards in which students are weak will help you clarify what students understand and where they need more instruction. The item analysis provides information about patterns or trends within student competencies and areas of weakness. In the Reading and Writing strands of the sample Class Summary, an item analysis shows that students are not weak in all of the grade-level expectations. Indeed, they are quite strong in some areas. For example, it is apparent that students were relatively strong in mechanical skills, or tasks in which rules could be memorized and applied, but they were weak in applying knowledge to new situations and in synthesizing information. They can identify an adjective but do not understand how to use one to improve their own writing. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Principles of Data-Driven Instruction 59

62 Principles of Data-Driven Instruction Remember that when you review a single strand, you are seeing a sample of the concepts and skills within that domain. It is not possible to assess the full range of skills for every possible grade-level expectation. A test that did so would be too long and inefficient. However, well-chosen samples of the expected skills will provide a general reflection of what students know and can apply in that area. If they are available, an examination of answer choices can provide additional insights into student understanding. Many test-item distracters are selected because they represent common errors. If many students select a single wrong answer, it can suggest a commonly held misconception. Generally, you should take care not to isolate test items as fragments to be taught. This would be teaching to the test, an ineffective and unethical practice. Rather, look for clusters or patterns within the items that help clarify what students know and do not know. This tells you where previous instruction was effective and where more instruction is needed. Analysis of test data to provide instructional focus can be done for a single test but is more effective when multiple pieces of information are brought to the process. Review student work samples or look across several tests. Has a particular skill or strand been a challenge or critical need over time, on the state test, on other benchmark tests, on basal chapter tests? The more clearly and fully you understand what students know and are able to do, the more easily you can plan effective instruction. Third: Plan effective instruction. It s not enough to administer and score a test. Teachers must understand what the test results mean in terms of what students know and are able to do. It is not enough to target low-performance strands for improvement without focusing on specific concepts and skills within those strands. But the real heart of data-driven decision making is instruction. Teachers have to plan, develop, and deliver appropriate lessons to address focal skills and concepts. The results from schools that use a data-driven approach to instruction indicate that it can be an effective way to ensure that students learn standards. The approach helps raise student achievement in the process. To plan effective instruction, you must first backmap the concepts and skills related to student understanding and application. Backmapping is analyzing a grade-level expectation to identify the prerequisite skills and knowledge needed to meet the expectation. Information on prerequisite skills can help pinpoint conceptual problems. Here is an example of backmapping for an expectation from the Comprehension section of the sample Class Summary: Paraphrase and summarize text to recall, inform, and organize ideas (65%) ability to identify key words (nouns and verbs) in text ability to identify the main idea of a sentence or paragraph ability to order events or statements appropriately ability to recognize the relative importance of events or statements Test results indicate that the class, as a whole, knows how to identify main ideas (Determine a text s main ideas [80%]), which also suggests that they have an understanding of key words. Where they are weak, then, is in their ability to judge relative importance and possibly in their ability to order appropriately the ideas they have identified. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Principles of Data-Driven Instruction 60

63 Principles of Data-Driven Instruction By backmapping a grade-level expectation, skill, or concept, teachers are better able to clarify and simplify what students must know and must be able to do before they begin learning the new grade-level expectation. This information is necessary for building an appropriate instructional sequence. There are eight elements that provide a framework for appropriate and effective instruction: Develop the concepts. Developing concepts lays a foundation on which students can build their understanding. This is often done using manipulatives, pictorials, or real-life contexts. Begin with what students already know. New concepts are easier to master when they are anchored to information students already know. Build fluency. Students are given opportunities to practice newly learned skills and concepts. Relate concepts to problem solving or applications. When students apply what they have learned to other classroom situations and to real-life situations, they are more likely to retain what they have learned. Encourage students to explain their reasoning. When students explain their understanding of concepts to others, they clarify their own thinking. Provide for high levels of engagement. The more students practice and apply skills and concepts in meaningful ways, the more they learn. Incorporate the social nature of learning. While whole-group instruction and individual work are important, so are partner work and small-group work. Make use of visuals and graphic organizers. Pictures, charts, story maps, and other visual aids help learners connect to and retain information. By weaving each element into lesson plans, teachers can increase the chances that students will develop competency in the area that has been targeted for improvement. Keep in mind that if targeted instruction is actually reteaching concepts and skills previously taught, it is important to use different strategies and activities than those used in initial instruction. Repeating the identical instruction a second time is unlikely to produce a better result. Teachers should ask themselves: What will I do differently as a teacher? What will my students do differently as learners? It is also a good idea to incorporate quick-checks regularly to ensure student understanding. This is most effective when the check is performed daily or almost daily and is incorporated within the regular lesson. For example: Have students explain how they solved a problem in different ways or have them summarize a passage they have read. Listen and probe for clarity in student thinking. Have students draw a picture or complete a graphic organizer to demonstrate a key concept. Assign two related tasks or questions, first a partner task and then an individual task, to check for each student s supported and independent understanding. At the end of a unit of instruction, consider constructing a mini-test of ten questions or short tasks covering the key concepts, skills, and grade-level expectations. Use the test to determine how students are doing and whether additional whole-group or small-group follow-up is needed. The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Principles of Data-Driven Instruction 61

64 Principles of Data-Driven Instruction Note: To build community focus on the importance of data-driven instruction and to allow teachers to share their efforts, encourage them to work in collaborative grade-level or crossgrade groups to complete these steps in the Target, Focus, and Plan process. How does the cycle for data-driven instruction work? As you have seen, there are three distinct steps described within the process of data-driven instruction. 1. Target strands where student achievement is low. 2. Focus on specific needs within those targeted areas. 3. Plan instruction to address those needs. The Target Focus Plan process sounds linear, like a 1, 2, 3 sequence, but it is better described as circular. As successive benchmark tests or chapter tests are given, the three steps are repeated. The cycle of Target, Focus, and Plan continually refines the instruction needed to support students learning of the grade-level standards. The key elements of the data-driven decision-making cycle is the use of student data as feedback on the effectiveness of instruction. Inherent in the cycle are two questions that lay at the heart of good teaching: What evidence do I have that what I am doing is working? How will I respond if what I am doing is not working? What is the role of the administrator? Administrative support for data-driven instruction is crucial. In your role as a leader, emphasize the importance of using data gained from standardized tests to focus and plan instruction. Set expectations and give ongoing support for the process by providing teachers with appropriate training, preparation time, and mentoring during the learning and implementation process. As teachers learn to use data to drive their instruction, you will be able to observe indications of their efforts in their preparation for and delivery of instruction. Teachers will have materials that reflect an analysis of the data, notations in lesson plans of targeted learning objectives, and instructional strategies selected to support critical areas of need. (See Appendix I for Data-Driven Instruction Observation Checklist.) The Leadership Handbook An Administrator s Quick Reference Guide Principles of Data-Driven Instruction 62