Thema der Arbeit. Learning and Collaborating with Wikis: Current Trends in Second Language Learning in Higher Education

Transcription

1 Thema der Arbeit Learning and Collaborating with Wikis: Current Trends in Second Language Learning in Higher Education Schriftliche Masterarbeit zur Erlangung des Grades MASTER OF ARTS im Rahmen des weiterbildenden Studienprogramms Educational Media/Bildung & Medien an der Universität Duisburg-Essen von Regina C. Brautlacht 1. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Michael Kerres 2. Gutachter: Tobias Hölterhof

2 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 2 We shape our tools and afterwards our tools shape us. (Marshall McLuhan)

3 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 3 Acknowledgements My deep gratitude goes to my mentor, James Chamberlain, Head of the Language Centre at the Bonn-Rhein-Sieg University of Applied Sciences. He has supported and encouraged me to pursue my professional development and gave me the great opportunity to engage in both personal and academic advancement. In addition, I truly appreciate that I was granted the opportunity to study at the Department of Media Education at the University Duisburg-Essen after completing my bachelor s degree in the US more than 20 years ago. Through the Bologna Accords, I have finally benefited from the higher educational reforms in Germany, thus making it possible for me to return to study at the graduate level. Special thanks go to Martina Grein for supporting me with my statistical analysis by using SPSS software and Anke Grigat for administrative help in scanning and compiling the data using the EvaSys software. Finally, I would like to express my deepest appreciation to my husband, Andreas Brautlacht, for encouraging and continually supporting me in obtaining my master s degree in Germany.

4 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 4 Abstract (German) In den vergangenen Jahren etablierten sich Web 2.0 Werkzeuge in den Curricula der Fremdsprachenlehre und sie werden in verschiedenen Lernszenarien eingesetzt. Wikis unterstützen Kollaboration und das Lernen mit dem Ansatz der soziokulturellen Theorie, der auch von Wygotski konzipiert worden ist. Die Masterarbeit untersucht den derzeitigen Einsatz von Wikis im Unterricht. Sie fokussiert sich auf den Einsatz von Wikis im Hochschulbereich, insbesondere im Fremdsprachenunterricht. Es werden die Forschungsergebnisse der letzten fünf Jahre analysiert und es wird untersucht, ob Wikis durch andere Web 2.0 Werkzeuge im Unterricht ersetzt werden könnten. Der Forschungsteil der Arbeit untersucht, wie mehr als 200 Studierende in drei verschiedenen Kursen im Bachelor-Studiengang Wikis als Lern- und kollaboratives Werkzeug einsetzen. Es wird analysiert, wie drei verschiedene Kurse mit einem unterschiedlichen didaktischen Ansatz mit Wikis arbeiten sowie die Wahrnehmung der Studierenden über das Lernen und Kollaborieren mit diesem Werkzeug. Abschließend wird diskutiert, welche Rolle Wikis zukünftig in der Pädagogik spielen werden. Welche didaktischen Maßnahmen müssen implementiert werden, um das Lernen und die Zusammenarbeit zu unterstützen, wenn Wikis als Kursbestandteil eingesetzt werden? Der vorgesehene Leserkreis besteht aus Lehrenden der Fremdsprachen oder e- learning Fachkräften. Keywords: CALL, wikis, Web 2.0, collaboration, language learning, higher education

5 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 5 Abstract (English) In the past years collaborative Web 2.0 tools have found a place in the curricula of foreign language teaching and are being utilized in many different teaching scenarios. Wikis are used to support collaborative learning based on social cultural theory originally also conceptualized by Vygotsky. This thesis examines the current uses of wikis in foreign language teaching. It focuses on how wikis are used in higher education, in particular in foreign language teaching. It identifies what research has been published in the past five years and examines if other social software or Web 2.0 tools are replacing wikis in the classroom. The empirical part of the thesis examines how more than 200 undergraduate students of business perceive using wikis for learning and collaborating in three different English language courses in Germany. Finally, the discussion focuses on what role wikis play in the future in education. What pedagogical measures need to be implemented to insure that learning and collaboration are supported when using wikis for coursework? The intended readers are foreign language instructors and e-learning professionals. Keywords: CALL, wikis, Web 2.0, collaboration, language learning, higher education

6 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 6 Table of Contents Acknowledgements... 3 Abstract (German)... 4 Abstract (English)... 5 List of Figures and Tables... 8 Acronyms and Abbreviations... 9 Part 1: Paradigm Shift in Education Introduction Online Learning and Higher Education Future Work Skills Language Learning and Technology What is Web 2.0? What is a Wiki? Web 2.0 Use in Higher Education Thesis Part 2: Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Learning Theories Introduction What is CALL? Development of a Theoretical CALL Framework Behaviorism and CALL Cognitivism and CALL Connectionism and CALL Constructivism and CALL Social Constructivism and CALL Summary: Three Stages of CALL Current Research on Web 2.0 and CALL Current Research on Wikis and Collaboration Why use Wikis? Pedagogical Benefits Using Wikis Pedagogical Challenges Using Wikis Why use Wikis in Higher Education for Language Learning? Part 3: Research Questions... 33

7 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 7 Part 4: Research on Students Perception on Using Wikis for Learning and Collaboration Methodology Research Approach Data Collection Limitations Data Analysis Results Quantitative Data Qualitative Data Students Use of the Wiki Writing in the Wiki Summary of Writing Habits Discussion Conclusion Part 5: Summary (English and German) Summary in English Summary in German Part 6: References Part 7: Appendices... 72

8 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 8 List of Figures and Tables Table 1: New Horizon Trends in Higher Education Table 2: The Three Stages of CALL Table 3: Participants and Percentage Surveyed (SPSS Output) Table 4: Own Ideas to the Wiki (Collaboration) Table 5: Edit or Commets to Peers or Instructor (Collaboration) Table 6: Own ideas commented or edited by other users (Collaboration) Table 7: Comfort levels of edits/feedback (Collaboration) Table 8: Ease of Using the Wiki for Collaboration (Collaboration) Table 9: Effectiveness of the Wiki (Collaboration) Table 10: Quality Production (Collaboration) Table 11: Use of the Wiki (Quantitative Data) Table 12: Writing in the Wiki (Quantitative Data) Table 13: Comparsion of Student Online Experience 2008/ Figure 1: Web 2.0 Meme Map from O Reilly (2005) Figure 2: Business English Course Wiki (Simulation Group) Figure 3: Company Wiki (Simulation Group) Figure 4: Course Wiki (Introduction Group) Figure 5: Course Wiki (ICC Group)... 40

9 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 9 Acronyms and Abbreviations CALL CERF CLIL CMC CSCL ECTS EAP EFL ESL ESP FLT HE HEIs HRK ICC L2 LMS MIT MOOC MS OLL SLA SSRS SLT TICCIT WYSIWYG ZPD Computer Assisted Language Learning Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Content Language Integrated Learning Computer Mediated Communication Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System English for Academic Purposes English as a Foreign Language English as a Second Language English for Specific Purposes Foreign Language Teaching Higher Education Higher Education Institutions Hochschulrektorenkonferenz (German Rectors Conference) Intercultural Communication Second Language Learning Management Systems Massachusetts Institute of Technology Massive Open Online Course Microsoft Online Language Learning Second Language Acquisition SQL Server Reporting Services Second Language Teaching Time-shared, Interactive, Computer-Controlled Information Television What You See Is What You Get Zone of Proximal Development

10 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 10 Part 1: Paradigm Shift in Education Introduction Globalization offers new challenges for a new emerging interconnected global community. Communication has increased tremendously through the Internet. Digital media offers new opportunities for communities of interest to form online and socialize on a professional and personal level, and thus transcend regional and national boundaries. As Schulmeister (2009) points out the Internet has become the leading medium and has turned into a mass medium thanks to its new interactive and intuitive technologies, known as Web 2.0 (p. 102). These technological advances also leave a mark on education and foresee a new paradigm shift. Social learning has flourished through Web 2.0 technology and has created a newer more learner centered approach (Johnson, 2012). A paradigm shift is defined by the Oxford Dictionaries Online as a fundamental change in approach or underlying assumptions which was first coined by Kuhn in the 1970s ( paradigm shift, 2010). Education has seen changes in the approach and underlying assumptions of how to teach and what to teach. These changes and new pedagogical approaches are influenced by society and its technological progress. One of the biggest paradigm shifts in education was Gutenberg s invention of the printing press. Today, the Internet offers a fundamental change in education. It offers new avenues of democratization of knowledge, communication and collaboration and its viral capabilities go far beyond the printed book. Globalization is affecting not only the way businesses are run today, but how science and research is conducted and how it impacts education. Higher education has become an international commodity. The United States, the United Kingdom and Australia have seen a potential market in offering higher education as a product and service to international students for the past 30 years. Other countries within the European Union, e.g. Germany offer international degree programs in English to accommodate the rising demand of international student mobility, which are supported by numerous EU initiatives (Kheng & Baldauf, Jr., 2011).

11 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 11 Online Learning and Higher Education Online learning has become an integral part of higher education and its role is being increasingly discussed in academia (Schiefner & Kerres, 2011). In 2012 alone, 6 million students have enrolled in one or more online courses in a US higher education institution (Allen, Seaman, Lederman & Jaschik, 2012a). The need to increase research in this field is recommended by many think tanks commissioned to analyze the current state of technology use and its use in higher education, which I examine in the Section Web 2.0 Use in Higher Education. Furthermore, free online education has emerged as a new wave of not-forprofit education of the masses. Higher education is getting competition from new, non-traditional education stakeholders that offer online courses to the general public. Udacity 1 offers online classes from the same educators and experts that also teach at well-known higher education institutions. It was founded with the mission to offer quality education in the 21st century for free to all persons in the pursuit of lifelong learning. Other institutions such as the Khan Academy 2 offer free online course materials. Ten years ago Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) began offering some of its course materials online for free to anyone interested in the topic. Since 2007 renowned institution in the US and UK have been offering their audio or video lectures for free on itunes U, a platform launched by Apple for university audio and video material. The idea of sharing course material and sharing these without charging a fee has grown. Newly formed alliances of traditional higher education institutions show that they are rethinking the idea of accessibility to knowledge and free education. MIT and Harvard founded EdEx 3 in EdEx offers students worldwide the opportunity to enroll in a number of online courses that are offered at MIT, Harvard or Berkley. In the same year 16 universities from the US, Canada and the UK will be offering free online courses through Coursera, 4 an online education platform. These new courses offered by top university faculty show the influence the Web has on education and the opportunities it brings forth. Free online education to anyone interested worldwide is the essential idea behind these new educational en- 1 Udacity was founded by Sebastian Thrun, Stavens and Sokolsky in 2011,

12 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 12 deavors (Weismann, 2012). Mass online education is increasing the participation of students in emerging and developing countries and contributing to the new 21 st century learning paradigm shift. If this educational service will continue to be free remains to be seen, but this newest trend known as massive open online courses (MOOCs) 5 is noteworthy. It seems that intrinsic learning outweighs the need to obtain a formal university degree or receive some type of certification. The benevolent use of knowledge is the new philosophy behind this development. Worldwide students of all ages can gain access to renowned university faculty or experts in the field and benefit from online education. These educators are contributing to this idea and are in a way challenging their own traditional models of higher education. All these new informal learning initiatives raise new issues in higher education and formal teaching paradigms. In 2012 the BARSON Research Group conducted two surveys in cooperation with Inside Higher Ed about the use of technology in higher education. Allen, Seaman, Lederman and Jaschik (2012b) surveyed more than 4,500 faculty and 591 instructional technology administrators on different issues concerning the use of technology in higher education. The researchers analyzed the fears and excitement of teaching staff regarding issues concerning the use of technology in higher education. More than 60 percent of the faculty surveyed felt positive about the employment of these new electronic learning materials, either available free online or self-produced and therefore replacing more traditional printed formats. Furthermore, faculty reported less time lecturing and more time coaching students (p. 3) and foresee an increase in hybrid/blended education, where collecting and analyzing data on teaching and learning on a course-by-course basis will increase significantly. But 88 percent of the faculties feel that increasing cost for profit education is something they fear the most (Allen et. al, 2012b). This data ties into the above mentioned trend of university faculty getting involved in other online education movements that offer lectures online on different non-traditional educational platforms for free. Future Work Skills According to the published report Future Work Skills 2020 (Davies, Fidler, & Gorbis, 2011) from the Institute for the Future (IFTF) among the top 10 work skills needed in the future are new media literacy skills, virtual collaboration skills and 5 Thrun from Stanford and Norvig from Google offered Introduction to Artificial Intelligence as a MOOC with an accompanied Facebook group and had more than 160,000 enrolled participants Lewin (2012).

13 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 13 cross cultural competency. New multimedia technologies are bringing about a transformation in the way we communicate. As technologies for video production, digital animation, augmented reality, gaming, and media editing become ever more sophisticated and widespread, [ ] developing a new vernacular, a new language for communication (p. 4). Davies et al. (2011) recommend that all educational institutes should consider to adapt quickly (p. 13) to these new works skills and drivers of change. Educational institutions should include media literacy into their curriculum, soft skills training and also need to encourage experimental learning through collaboration. Virtual collaboration and media literacy are among the top work skills in the next decade. The use of new online tools has triggered off a change in learning and teaching. This new paradigm shift is in progress. With a demand of new competencies and skills for the workforce, educators need to consider these drivers of change. The traditional lectures held in large halls are being replaced by more individual personal learning environments which are enhanced through the use of social software such as wikis, blogs, social and video sharing platforms. Knowledge is no longer only transferred through printed materials and the wisdom of a few scholars is merging with the wisdom of crowds. Language Learning and Technology Buchberger, Chardaloupa, Perperidis and Heckmann (2011) state that new technologies and the resources offered online provide a high potential for language learning. Blended learning formats have been a high priority in curricular development. Educators have access to authentic sources, can collaborate with peers and communicate around the world. In addition, learning languages with new technologies offers the learner a more tailored and personal learning environment. However, the sheer magnitude of what is offered online can be daunting. Choosing the most appropriate learning materials is difficult from the wide range of free online dictionaries, study materials uploaded either from publishers or educators, professional podcasts, online magazines and newspapers and other professional language services. (p. 7). With the rise of connectivity through technological advances of the Internet, English has become more important than ever to communicate in written and spoken language internationally. The majority of information published online is written in

14 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 14 English and there is a growing demand to communicate and collaborate on joint projects or business endeavors. Gee and Hayes (2011) remark in Language and Learning in the Digital Age that digital media has changed and transformed language and learning for better or worse. This new technological development can cause a paradigm shift in education. Digital media shifts the publication dominance of established traditional media to mainstream authors, who can publish online without a professional network or professional training. The audience is no longer limited to one region or country but it can be viewed instantly worldwide. No technology books, television, computer, video games, or the Internet by itself makes people good or bad, smart or stupid. Such technologies have effects only in terms of how, when, where, and why they are put to use. They have different effects in different context of use. They can be forces of good or ill. A computer connected to the Internet in the hands of a child with good mentoring is often a force for learning. It may not be in other circumstances. The real issue, then, is social, that is, who has and who does not have mentoring, not technology alone. The same is true of books and of language. (pp. 4 5) As Gee and Hayes (2011) point out, it is the pedagogy mentoring which still remains the focus of educators and not the technology itself. Although much attention in recent years has been placed on the use of new teaching technologies in the classroom, it still remains the didactical approaches that should be discussed in literature. Li (2012) and Wang and Vásquez (2012) most recently reviewed current empirical research on Web 2.0 in higher education used in foreign language teaching (FLT). The researchers conclude that most empirical research is based on sociocultural theory. They also emphasize that theoretical frameworks and sound methodology are important in order to establish sound pedagogical benefits for learning. It is not the use of technology itself that makes it beneficial to learning. Before turning our attention to learning theories and approaches in teaching foreign languages with technology, I need to define what Web 2.0 is and how it is used in higher education and for language learning.

15 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 15 What is Web 2.0? Web 2.0 was first coined by Tim O Reilly in 2004 in a brainstorming session for a conference that had been organized to discuss new trends after the hype of the dot.com era had dwindled away. O Reilly s idea was to visualize the differences from the previously developed internet applications as seen below in his Web 2.0 Meme Map (Figure 1) and shows the new idea of a platform creating a collective intelligence that was supported by software and its services on the Web. The new idea presented was the idea of users creating content, exchanging data and participating in a larger context. (O Reilly, 2005) Figure 1: Web 2.0 Meme Map from O Reilly (2005) Since then Web 2.0 has become a buzzword with many other alternative variations (e.g. Government 2.0, Teacher 2.0) and interpretations of the original term. Web 2.0 is still widely used, even though newer applications (e.g. social media, Twitter, mobile apps) were not considered as part of the definition as seen in Figure 1. Five years later O Reilly & Batelle (2009) add Today, we realize that these insights were not only directionally right, but are being applied in areas we only imagined in The smartphone revolu-

16 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 16 tion has moved the Web from our desks to our pockets. Collective intelligence applications are no longer being driven solely by humans typing on keyboards but, increasingly, by sensors. Our phones and cameras are being turned into eyes and ears for applications; motion and location sensors tell where we are, what we re looking at, and how fast we re moving. Data is being collected, presented, and acted upon in real time. The scale of participation has increased by orders of magnitude. (O Reilly & Battelle 2009, p. 1) In 2004 crowd scouring and the movements behind Twitter and Facebook with real time were not part of the original definition. O Reilly (2009) offers yet another, newer updated term Web Squared 6, however, this has not been adapted in literature so far. (O'Reilly & Battelle, 2009) What is a Wiki? A wiki is a website where more than one user can write and edit to create their own website. These websites can be edited and updated without special programming skills and therefore they are ideally suited for collaborative work. Unlike a blog, which is mainly used by one author, a wiki is used to collect knowledge, plan, coordinate and organize information. It can be updated by those users with access and rights to contribute to the website. Some wikis are password protected and only members of the workspace can access the information and contribute to the wiki. Other wikis are open and accessible to all. The wikis also have a history function so that all changes are stored and previous texts are retrievable. The underlying fundamental idea is that sharing information and using everyone to contribute to knowledge will produce the best possible outcome. Ward Cunningham programmed the first wiki in 2001, known as WikiWikiWeb 7. He named the interactive user website wiki, which means quick in Hawaiian. Cunningham (2012) describes on his website The idea of a Wiki may seem odd at first, but dive in, explore its links and it will soon seem familiar. Wiki is a composition system; it s a discussion medium; 6 The Web is no longer an industry unto itself the Web is now the world. And the world needs our help. If we are going to solve the world s most pressing problems, we must put the power of the Web to work its technologies, its business models, and perhaps most importantly, its philosophies of openness, collective intelligence, and transparency. And to do that, we must take the Web to another level. We can t afford incremental evolution anymore. It s time for the Web to engage the real world. Web meets World that s Web Squared. O'Reilly and Battelle J. (2009, p. 10) 7 The software and website were created by Ward Cunningham,

17 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 17 it s a repository; it s a mail system; it s a tool for collaboration. We don t know quite what it is, but we do know it s a fun way to communicate asynchronously across the network. (p. Front Page) The most known wiki is Wikipedia, a free online encyclopedia. According to Wikipedia nearly 23 million articles have been published and more than 33 million users contribute content. In 2001 the first Wikipedia was launched in English and then followed by the German version. Today there are articles in 286 languages. ( History of Wikipedia, 2012). In the past it was not regarded as a reliable source of information since it was not written exclusively by a panel of experts and peerreviewed as found in hardback versions of traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopedia Britannica or Brockhaus. Giles (2005) compared Britannica and Wikipedia for accuracy and found that the rate of errors were nearly the same (Giles, 2005). Although millions of people access and use Wikipedia it is often not regarded as a valid source of information by teachers and academia. Web 2.0 Use in Higher Education The use of Web 2.0 technologies in higher education is increasingly being addressed in a number of independent research reports on a national and international level. These reports provide an overview of the current use of technology inside and outside the classroom and point out the challenges institutions face in implementing new technologies. I examine the recent NMC Horizon Report 2012 Higher Education Edition Furthermore, I briefly highlight a country report, Herausforderung Web 2.0 (2009) published by the German Rectors Conference (HRK) that offers policy guidelines and insights into the current status of Web 2.0 usage in higher education in Germany. The NMC Horizon Report 2012, Higher Education Edition is published by the New Media Consortium 8 in cooperation with EDUCASE 9. Both membership organizations are committed to technology use in education. There are special editions of the report for higher education, secondary education as well as for museum education. The reports focus on findings that are conducted through extensive re- 8 New Media Consortium is a membership organization committed to future use of technology in education, 9 EDUCAUSE is a nonprofit membership association committed to information technology use in higher education,

18 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 18 search 10 and show how new technologies influence education and forecast future trends. The Higher Education Edition 2012 examines the main emerging technologies and ranks trends that will shape teaching and learning from 2012 to (Johnson, 2012) The needs and expectations of a flexible informal learning environment have increased in today s engaged world. Informal learning is ranked as the top trend in the coming years, offering students more flexible learning opportunities at home, in school or during transit from one place to another. This gives way to a new challenge that higher educations will need to adjust and offer new learning models that serve students and provide the needed tools. The second most important trend is the increased use of cloud-based applications. The desire to have flexible storage and accessibility still outweighs the issues of privacy and control. The third key trend is the growing demand of the workforce for collaborative skills of its employees. Johnson (2012) observes To facilitate more teamwork and group communication, projects rely on tools such as wikis, Google Docs, Skype, and easily shared file-storage sites including Dropbox. Students are increasingly evaluated not just on the overall outcome, but on the success of the group dynamic. In many cases, the way an online collaboration tool is used is an equally important outcome. (Johnson, 2012, p. 4) Educators need to rethink their roles and offer more mentoring and guidance for the new information age. Digital literacy is still not widespread among teaching staff and rarely included in teaching training. The fourth trend also focuses on preparing students for the workplace by offering students information processing skills needed to identify and to evaluate the credibility of online information. The fifth trend describes the new forms of learning that are not exclusively face-to-face. Education paradigms are shifting to include online learning, hybrid learning, and collaborative models.[...] We are beginning to see developments in online learning that offer different affordances than physical campuses, including opportunities of increased collaboration while equipping students with stronger digital skills. (Johnson, 2012, p. 4) 10 A wiki is used to document the project of the NMC Horizon Report and it demonstrates the research conducted by the panel of international experts for each edition,

19 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 19 Finally, the last trend gives way a more active learning approach that engages the learner through the use of tablets and smartphones to tap into authentic material and interconnect these to the higher education curriculum, thus enabling a more challenging and participatory learning environment inside and outside the classroom. The report addresses the overall issues and challenges faced by higher education institutions when using new technology. The overall issues and trends in the coming year are best seen in Table 1 showing the 6 NMC ranked trends. These trends coincide with the previously mentioned forecasts of the workforce by Davies et al. (2011). The new forms of technology give rise to new sources of data not traditionally used in research and scientific peer-reviewed publications. Emerging Internet publications, like blogs, online social communities exchanging ideas on wikis or forums and other forms of collaboration give access to new forms of communication and need to be included in higher education. This includes incorporating new technologies into the curriculum; providing facilities for learning that include the use of these technologies. Table 1: New Horizon Trends in Higher Education NMC Ranking 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th Trends People expect to be able to work, learn, and study whenever and wherever they want to. The technologies we use are increasingly cloud-based, and our notions of IT support are decentralized. The world of work is increasingly collaborative, driving changes in the way student projects are structured. The abundance of resources and relationships made easily accessible via the Internet is increasingly challenging us to revisit our roles as educators. Education paradigms are shifting to include online learning, hybrid learning and collaborative models. There is a new emphasis in the classroom on more challenge-based and active learning. Usage Informal Learning; increased needs and expectations Cloud-based applications are more accepted; storage and access worldwide remain attractive; cost reduction still prevails over issues of privacy and sovereignty Work skills for collaboration and use of tools for teamwork, such as wikis, Google Docs, Skype and Dropbox are increasing. How to use collaboration tools is just as important as team project itself Access information that is valid and has credentials. Emerging certification programs compete with traditional university credentialing Budget costs offer new models to face-to-face; online learning increases the need for digital skills Student-centered learning increases through the use of tablets and smartphones. Curriculum in higher education is connected to real life scenarios. Own table based on NMC Horizon Report 2012 (Johnson, 2012) The German Rectors Conference (HRK) offers in its publication Herausforderung Web 2.0 from Schultz (2010) the same general background policy

20 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 20 recommendations for the developments of Web 2.0 tools. However, according to Schulz (2010) Web 2.0 tools will gradually change teaching and research in Germany and there is not an overall transfer that has taken place in HEIs. The HRK report advises HEIs not to simply transfer the general use of daily Web 2.0 applications but states that there are other potential uses in higher education. Higher education institutions in Germany should actively be involved in the development of Web 2.0 for learning, teaching and research. Research should use Web 2.0 tools to support research activities, documentation and to raise the quality of management processes. The report also leads to the conclusion that substantial innovative potential already exists in Germany. This potential should be taken into consideration when developing policies by educational leadership. If and how individual tools should be established campus-wide is to be reviewed by the stakeholders and experts in their respective institutions. It recommends establishing a central facility within a HEI to handle the use of Web 2.0 tools. Finally, it encourages HE experts to invest in research of Web 2.0 applications in order to document the rapid developments in the area of web-based communication in society and to present research findings that are crucial for the future developments of students, academic programs, teaching staff and higher education leadership (Schultz, 2010). König (2009) points out that the debate has gone in a wrong direction and should not exclusively be geared towards the learners and often the debate of the use of Web 2.0 tools does not consider educators or content. He suggests directing the discourse to how higher education needs to change and viewing it from a management perspective. The organizational change within HEI is the foremost driver and - these institutions need not only a direction, but established instruments to provide change. But HEI are very resistant to any changes and these are not due to the lack of interest in implementing technology but are due to structural restraints that victimize the institutions, for example ECTS credit point, accreditation requirements (König, 2009) Glaiser and Thillosen (2009) note that new learning management platforms (LMS) of the 1990s were not fully integrated into German HE due to the nonexisting administrative infrastructure necessary to implement new technologies campus-wide, instead independent stakeholders at HEIs started using web tools for teaching. These issues raised by König (2009) as well as Glasier and Thillosen (2009) show that the recommendations offered by the Horizon Report or the HRK report

21 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 21 may fail if the administrative support and infrastructure in higher education is not addressed properly. Thesis In the past years collaborative Web 2.0 tools have found a place in the curricula of foreign language teaching and are being used in many different teaching scenarios. Wikis are used to support collaborate learning and based on social cultural theory originally conceptualized by Vygotsky and his idea of social learning. This thesis examines the current uses of wikis in foreign language teaching. It focuses on how wikis are used in higher education, in particular in foreign language teaching. It identifies what research has been published in the past five years and examine if other social software or Web 2.0 tools are replacing wikis in the classroom. The research conducted examines how more than 200 German undergraduate students perceive using wikis for learning and collaboration in three different English language courses. Finally, the discussion focuses on what role wikis play in the future in education. What pedagogical measures need to be implemented to insure that learning and collaboration are supported by using wikis for coursework? Therefore, I examine the following: 1. Should educators in higher education still use wikis for collaboration and learning or are there other tools that are replacing them? 2. Do wikis facilitate students content learning in and outside the classroom? 3. How do students perceive the use of a wiki for coursework to support collaboration? Part 2: Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Learning Theories Introduction As described in Part 1, online learning has increased tremendously and online language learning (OLL) as well. The second part of my thesis examines recent research in the use of wikis in higher education and addresses the first research questions if wikis are still being used in higher education. Before examining the use of wikis in foreign language teaching, I begin with an overview of the development of computer assisted language learning (CALL) and how it applies to the learning theo-

22 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 22 ries in second language acquisition. Most research conducted in higher education is based on a foundation of theoretical frameworks that are used in teaching foreign languages (Li, 2012; Wang & Vásquez, 2012). In the past few years collaborative tools are increasingly being used in language classes. Hubbard (2009) points out that there are numerous publications and the literature is extensive. Furthermore, he states that CALL is often been criticized for being overly technology driven at the expense of theory, research and pedagogy.[...]whether or not theories emerging from CALL perspective would be of value remains an open question, but to date little progress has been made in that direction. (p. 3). As discussed in the first part of the paper, online technologies have become an integral part of our society and the workforce. Therefore, higher education institutions are shifting away from traditional forms of teacher-centered to a more studentcentered learning paradigm. There are four major theories that apply to foreign language learning: Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Connectionism and Constructivism, as described in How Languages are Learned (2006) by Lightbown and Spada. What is CALL? Levy (1997) defines Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) as the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning (p. 1). Chun (2011) states, CALL is an emerging field that studies how technology is used as one (of many) tool(s) for language learning. (p. 663). CALL is a sub-discipline of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) 11 or also known as Second Language Teaching (SLT) or Foreign Language Teaching (FLT). SLA (i.e. FLT, SLT) are all sub-disciplines of Applied Linguistics. CALL is therefore often referred to as multi-disciplinary and considers research from different disciplines, for example, psychology, sociology, computer science or education. CALL emerged as a field with conferences and professional organizations in the 1980s. Today online learning and CALL have become a promising field with Web 2.0 offering many communicative approaches to language learning. 11 Second Language Acquisition (SLA) is the discipline that deals with the process of learning a second language or a third/fourth language after having learned the first language. It is a subdiscipline of linguistics and is closely related to psychology and education. (

23 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 23 Development of a Theoretical CALL Framework There is no theory or emerging theory that is centered on CALL and as Hubbard (2009) reports no real developments have been made in this area. Chun (2011) adds that For the future, CALL scholars look toward developing appropriate theoretical framework for using technology in service of L2 learning. (p. 676) We have seen several significant changes from a behaviorist approach to a more cognitive approach, which has dominated FLT for the most part to a more communicative approach (Levy 1997). Sociocultural aspects of language learning are viewed as important to SLA and have dominated research in the past 20 years (p. 416). Behaviorism and CALL Behaviorism is a learning theory which was widely accepted in the 1940s and 50s in the US. Learning happens by exposing the learner to a habitual routine and offering opportunity to imitate through repetition. By offering drill and practice the learner imitates the appropriate behavior and thus learns something new. The first experiments were conducted on animals by the Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov. In his research he concludes that animals learn to respond to a particular stimulus. This reflex response can occur even if the particular stimulus is omitted (Decke-Cornill & Küster, 2009). The term behaviorism was coined by John C. Watson, an American psychologist, who based his research on Pavlov s first experiments. He explains in his original article in 1914 that [p]sychology as the behaviorists view it, is a purely objective, experimental branch of natural sciences which needs introspection as little as do the sciences of chemistry and physics. (Kimble & Thompson R. (Ed.), 1994, p. 253). Learning is based on a trial and error principal and through habitual activity. Skinner published in his study Verbal Behavior how children learned languages and this is the first theoretical basis developed for language learning. Behaviorists empirical theory is based on the premise that language is only influenced by the environment. Behaviorism can explain certain routine language structures acquired by children; however, it does not explain the use of advanced grammar structures. This is the reason why researchers needed other explanations for language acquisition (Lightbown & Spada, 2006, p.15). The first language laboratories were introduced

24 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 24 and Skinner was an important advocate of programmed instruction. In early CALL of the 1950s-1960s the idea was that computers could provide immediate feedback and this would be essentially a preferred method of learning a language (Levy, 1997, pp ). This mechanical approach was also adapted in the 1970s and 1980s for the first structured grammar translation and audio-lingual exercises. Students worked on mainframe computers to improve their accuracy (Chun, 2011, p. 664). Cognitivism and CALL Cognitivist theory believes that learning is constructed through mental processing. Chomsky is one of the most known linguists and his theory of language acquisition has shaped our understanding of language acquisition. He believes that children learn a language due to an innate function. This innate ability offers children to deal with complex language syntax and grammar without being exposed to every possible variation of language structure. Cognitivism began to emerge in the 1950s. In the 1970s researchers believed that behaviorism was not a sufficient theory to explain second language acquisition. Krashen began to develop a second language acquisition theory based on Chomsky s theory of children s language acquisition, known as the Monitor Model. Although his ideas were widely criticized, he influenced the teaching of communicative language (Lightbown & Spada, 2006, pp ). In the 1970s the principle use of the PC was to offer communicative exercises that focused on language immersion and fluency (Warschauer, 2004). Linguists that use the cognitivist approach believe that learners develop language based on the input they get through their own internal linguistic mechanisms. For learning a language cognitivists often refer to a learner as a computer that retrieves information, processes and stores it. The learner actively solves problems, discovers learning through working on assignments and has the possibility to work on meta-cognitive activities such as self-testing, creating their own word lists and monitoring learning progress. Emphasis is on cognitive learning. It is also often referred to skills and competency learning (Lightbrown & Spada, 2006).

25 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 25 Connectionism and CALL Connectionists believe that learners create knowledge of language by being exposed to many examples of linguistic constructions. The L2 learner develops a network of components (or chunks) that are connected. The computer offers the learner to increase the skills through the frequent use of tasks. As Hulstijn (2003) states the Internet has opened more opportunities for L2 learners to embrace in language learning by improving reading, writing, listening and speaking skills. One example for this is the 123LISTEN software developed by the University of Amsterdam where the learner is required to do complete tasks using multimedia software tools parallel to language instruction. The learners complete listening exercises step by step and listen to fragments of a speech step by step with subtitles (Hulstijn, 2003). Today, many different internet sites offer similar activities for free. For example, TED Talks 12 offer videos with transcripts and subtitles in more than 90 languages. It is possible to listen to a speech step by step with both the original English language subtitles as well as the translation. Constructivism and CALL Constructivism defines learning as a continual and slow process that builds upon the previous knowledge acquired. Constructing knowledge is an individual situation based on the environment. Knowledge and learning is an individual process and learners have different realities. Pritchard and Woollard (2010) explain constructivists reality as Each of us will build an idiosyncratic version of reality based partially on identical experiences but shaped by individual experience and, importantly, upon the individual s prior knowledge, understanding and experience. (p. 5). Therefore, students exposed to the same instruction will have outcomes based on different past experiences and the individual level of knowledge as well as their cognitive development (Pritchard & Woollard, 2010). Social Constructivism and CALL Social constructivist theory pays special attention to the significance of learning within a cultural context and through social interaction. It is a subcategory of constructivism with emphasis on the social aspects involved in knowledge construc- 12 (

26 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 26 tion and involves active participation from the learner in a social setting. Social constructivism is most closely associated with Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist. Today, he is known for his major contributions to constructivist theory and our understanding of learning processes. His concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which he published in his work Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes is fundamental to cognitive and mental growth. Vygotsky (1978) defines ZPD as The difference between the child s development level as determined by independent problem solving and the higher level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. (p. 85). Originally, ZPD was intended to explain an inexperienced learner and an experienced learner, but this has been expanded to include novice/novice or learner/learner interlocutors (Lightbown & Spada, 2006 p. 48). Therefore, ZPD is the potential for learning when a person performs a task with the help of someone that understands the task that the person would not have been able to do on their own. The support in the learning process offered by a peer, a teacher or another knowledgeable person is known as scaffolding. Scaffolding becomes an important element in a social activity. Peers offer support to each other. Pritchard and Woollard (2010) provide a newer term for Vygotskyian learning and refer to a scaffolder as a more knowledgeable other. (p. 18). In the 21 st century social constructivist theory dominates empirical research in SLA and CALL (Li, 2012; Wang & Vásquez, 2012). From all theoretical frameworks CALL previously used a more cognitive approach by using the computer for language learning and now the shift is more to a socio-cultural approach which is grounded by the use of Web 2.0 technologies and the use of social software. Social computing and CALL require a more student-centred approach to language learning. Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) includes synchronous and asynchronous tools. Students share, comment and discuss with other partners their own opinions or reflect on cultural differences. In the beginning of the century a new form of tandem learning was offered in foreign language classes (English, German, French, Spanish) with classes communicating internationally. CMC enables students to learn from each other without scaffolding form the educator. Researchers focus mostly on how

27 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 27 students participate in social learning environments and how they perceive cultural aspects. As Blake (2011) points out CMC exchanges also caused cultural misunderstandings. Davies (2011) stresses that the traditional methods of social learning as described above can increase forms of social learning. Thus, the question arises if the curricula attend to the new forms of learning that is more self-directed. These new technological developments change the way society deals with knowledge acquisition and therefore curricula need to adapt to the new environment. Social learning traditionally was a face-to-face group interaction and is still a preferred mode of learning for learners at all levels. However, new social software such as wikis, blogs, or social networking platforms bring additional tools to the classroom setting and therefore provide new opportunities for learners to learn. Summary: Three Stages of CALL The above mentioned learning theories applied to CALL are summarized by Warschauer (2004) into three stages of the development of CALL from a structural to a communicative approach and finally in the 21st century to an integrative CALL. Table 2: The Three Stages of CALL Stage 1970s-1980s: Structural CALL 1980s-1990s: Communicative CALL 21st Century: Integrative CALL Technology Mainframe PCs Multimedia and Internet English-Teaching Paradigm Grammar-Translation & Audio-Lingual Communicate Language Teaching Content-Based, ESP/EAP View of Language Structural (a formal structural system) Cognitive (a mentallyconstructed system) Socio-cognitive (developed in social interaction) Principal Use of Computerses Communicative Exerci- Drill and Practice Authentic Discourse Principal Objective Accuracy Fluency Agency Source: Warschauer ( 2004, p. 11) The origins of CALL date back to the PLATO 13 and TICCIT projects of the 1960s and 1970s (Chun 2011, Hubbard 2009, Levy 1997). The first stage began in the 1970s with a structured approach (i.e. audio-lingual approach 14 ) offering gram- 13 Funded by the National Science Foundation PLATO (Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations) Project was an educational computing system initiated by Bitzer from the University of Illinois in Levy (1997, p. 15). 14 An audio-lingual approach is An approach to second or foreign language teaching that is based on the behaviorist theory of learning and on structural linguistics, especially the contrastive analysis hypothesis. This instructional approach emphasizes the formation of habits through the repetition, practice, and memorization of sentence patterns in isolation from each other and from contexts of meaningful use. Lightbown and Spada (2006, p. 195)

28 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 28 mar exercises and audio-lingual exercises in language laboratories using mainframe computers. This was dominated by imitating sound and formed by habit (drill and practice) with the general learning objective to produce accurate language. But at the same time many researchers agreed that this approach was not sufficient in explaining SLA (Levy, 1997; Lightbown & Spada, 2006). The second stage of CALL began in the 1980s-1990s and is referred to as a communicative CALL. This is the stage where the PC offered language training with communicative exercises and the learning objective was no longer on accuracy but emphasis was placed on fluency. Cognitive aspects of language learning were seen as more ideal in understanding language learning and teaching (Chun, 2011). Blake (2011) states that this is the birth of multimedia language learning and launching commercial business products on the market such as Tell Me More or Rosetta Stone. (p. 23) The final stage of CALL began at the turn of the century with the rise of Web 2.0 technologies and the increased use of the Internet offering multimedia online material and thus offers social interaction using authentic means of written and oral communication opportunities. This stage of CALL is mostly viewed from a sociocultural or socio-cognitive approach. In the following section I analyze current research in the field of social cultural theory and CALL and focus on how wikis are useful in L2 learning and offer the opportunity for students to learn to collaborate with peers to meet the challenges of the 21 st century literacy requirements of the globalized world. Current Research on Web 2.0 and CALL Wang and Vásquez (2012) reviewed current empirical studies on Web 2.0 technologies in second language (L2) learning from 2005 to 2009 and built upon prior literature review. The investigation concludes that blogs and wikis are the most studied of all Web 2.0 tools. So far, little or no research has been conducted on the pedagogical uses of other Web 2.0 tools such as social networking (Facebook) or micro-blogging or using multiple tools. Of the 48 empirical studies examined, English (58%) is the most researched language, followed by Spanish, German and French. Other foreign languages should also be included in further CALL research. The researchers suggest that more studies should focus on the learning outcomes, foremost assessing the increase in the level of proficiency or intercultural competence. In order to build a disciplinary knowledge base, future research on Web 2.0 technologies and L2 learn-

29 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 29 ing should be guided by clearly-stated, clearly-identifiable, theoretical frameworks. (Wang & Vásquez, 2012, p. 420). Most research are case studies, qualitative and from university settings. Grell and Rau (2011) examined empirical literature from 2008 and 2010 on the use of social software (blogs, wikis, microblogs, sharing platforms and social bookmarking) in higher education. This study summarizes the issues that were mostly addressed in using social software in HE. The study also discusses the challenges HE faces in implementing the new paradigm shift to a more student-centered learning. Most of the studies showed that blogs and wikis are most researched. The biggest issue seemed to be the lack of participation or collaboration. The authors acknowledge the necessity of requiring students to participate in formal educational settings. When comparing the studies, students are generally motivated to participate through extrinsic motivation. Wikis show the potential to create a learning community that creates and reflects on knowledge. The researchers argue that higher education is facing new challenges in using social collaborative tools and that the use of these tools is changing the education gradually. Traditional teaching paradigms and assessment offer little leeway for newer collaborative scenarios where knowledge is not simply reproduced. Since the turn of the century second language learning has seen a paradigm shift (Davies 2011, Wang & Vásquez, 2012) gradually moving from a more cognitive to a more social approach, offering classroom instruction with authentic online materials and students participating in new communicative social environment using social software to enhance communication exercises and group projects. Current Research on Wikis and Collaboration There is extended literature on language learning through collaboration but little research on using wikis in language learning (Hughes & Narayan, 2009, Kessler & Bikowski, 2010). Most research on wikis on students perceptions of using wikis has been very positive. Li (2012) states that With the development of emerging computer-based technologies or instruction and learning, wikis for collaborative learning will be increasingly implemented in second/foreign language classes. (p. 33). Li (2012) analyzed empirical research conducted from on the use of wikis in foreign language classes. She examined twenty-one empirical studies in

30 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS peer-reviewed journals 15. By examining the literature on wikis Li found that most research is conducted at universities and predominately in ESL/EFL classrooms. The studies were based on varied theories, but the sociocultural theory or social constructivism dominated. In particular, Vygotsky s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) was used as a theoretical framework (p. 17). She concludes that research has found that each writing task and writing instructions need to be designed for a specific purpose. Secondly, the instructor s role is an important aspect in each wiki project. Providing feedback on collaborative work, offering scaffolding and participating within the collaborative environment is essential. In addition, the studies also emphasize the need to provide technological training for the students. Li encourages more quantitative research since most studies were qualitative. Further research is needed in different foreign languages and also in non-university settings (e.g. in schools, technical and vocational training) or personal learning scenarios. Finally, the empirical studies mainly deal with one single tool. Datta and Lamont (2010) found that top management in the US see collaboration at work as a priority. The interviewed executives said that the best tools for collaboration were those that were the most simple. The essential of successful collaboration was not a varied use of online tools, but more emphasis on soft skills. To improve the effectiveness proper training and the right choice could bring about improvement in collaboration. Interestingly, , audio, web conferencing as well as file sharing are viewed as the best tools for collaboration. Finally, the most essential factor for successful collaboration in business is focusing on good project management skills rather than using digital tools (pp. 3-4). The results of this study give a clear orientation that should be kept in mind: The use of tools, multiple tools or technology itself in foreign language training are not the most important aspects, but simplicity is an important aspect when using technical tools to enhance language learning. Finally, skills and content training are the most important. 15 Li (2012) reviewed 21 articles in the following journals: CALICO Journal (3), Computer Assisted Language Learning (2), Language Learning & Technology (2), Recall (2), System (2), Australasian Journal of Educational Technology (2), Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (1), Educational Technology & Society (1), English for Specific Purposes (1), English Teaching: Practice and Critique (1), Foreign Language Annals (1), Interactive Learning Environments (1), International Journal on E-Learning (1), and Journal of College Teaching and Learning (1).

31 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 31 Why use Wikis? Wikis can be used in formal language classes to share information created by students and teachers. The wikis can be public and accessible in the Internet or password protected and only accessible to students enrolled in the course. They are often free and either integrated into a learning management platform or a service provider such as Wikispaces or PBworks. The newer generation of wikis are simple to use and do not require the users to know HTML. Pedagogical Benefits Using Wikis Wikis can be used for courses in a number of ways as an online coursebook with authentic online material, a site to collect up-to-date information repositories, or as a collaborative writing project. Educators began using wikis as an online coursebook, replacing the hardcopy version from a publisher. A course wiki can be used for a team of teachers as well as for one individual class. Students can access the materials for the course online and can listen to audio and video material. The benefits of not using a regular hardcopy course book is that it can be tailored to the students specific learning needs, it can offer only the needed material for each session and unnecessary material is not presented to the students. Online material can be embedded, in particular videos and audio material. Students can access the authentic material directly by clicking on the links provided and do not have to search the Internet. Secondly, the students can work collaboratively on collecting information and sharing this knowledge with their classmates, school or community. Thirdly, it can be used to engage students in writing collaboratively on projects (project wiki) and posting the information for all course participants or making the information available to the public. A wiki is essentially also a social environment, and as such an ideal space for learners to offer scaffolding for each other. Scaffolding takes place and is guaranteed by the collaborative nature of the tool. ZPD is often cited as a theoretical background for using wikis for learning. The benefits current research states for using wikis for

32 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 32 learning and collaboration are summarized by Li (2012) in her empirical research analysis. Wikis motivate students to work independently (student-centered), support peer-review, enable student scaffolding, encourage student feedback and offer opportunities for immediate teacher involvement (p. 30). Pedagogical Challenges Using Wikis From the literature published in the past years researchers have collected students comments on the challenges they faced when using wikis in language learning. Students commented on the following aspects: technical challenges (formatting issues) unfamiliarity with the tool discourages collaboration preference of combining the wiki with synchronous tools Finally, simply implementing the use of wikis into the curriculum does not necessarily encourage collaboration (pp ). Why use Wikis in Higher Education for Language Learning? In general German universities suffer from large student populations, overcrowded large lectures and offer poor support services for students (Budka, Ebner, Nagler, W., & Schallert, 2011, p. 3). Wikis are contributing to a new system of collaborative writing where knowledge storage is organized in a continual process. Texts can be edited and changed instantly when adjustments take place. This is a transformation from a printed permanent text to a living text that evolves to incorporate newest developments and can be accessed not only by students, but can reach far beyond the academic world through the Internet (Gläser & Thillosen, 2009, pp ). To engage in new communication methods that are not standardized in the curricula in secondary or higher education, new pedagogical concepts need to be developed and further theoretically-based research is necessary. As indicated by surveys from Kleimann et al. (2008) and Schulmeister (2009), HEIs offer digital materials mostly as a download on learning management platforms. Students are not ex-

33 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 33 posed to any other form of digital media involving collaborative work. It is necessary to pay more attention to teaching and learning how to collaborate. Although the described paradigm shift is occurring, as already described in the first part of my thesis, educators need to prepare students for the new forms of knowledge building in collaborative communities. This requires students to be trained in new skills that are emerging, and thus offers the necessary foundation for the digital age in the 21 st century. Part 3: Research Questions The constructive and collaborative learning theories are most often associated with the use of wikis in educational settings as discussed in the previous part on learning theories. Educators can use wikis in different pedagogical ways and they are useful in learning. Constructive learning differs from behavioristic learning. Behaviorism is more teacher-oriented and the learning perspective focuses on providing expert knowledge in short chunks to students. By providing many drilling exercises in language learning the students learn to imitate the language. The main premise of constructivism is that students learn from creating content themselves and building upon previous knowledge. Social constructivism includes that learning happens through social interaction and collaboration. Wikis are used to support collaborate learning and are often founded on social cultural theory originally conceptualized by Vygotsky and his idea of social learning. According to Vygotsky s theory on social constructivism, learners can learn through collaboration. In the past years collaborative Web 2.0 tools have found a place in the curricula of foreign language teaching and are being used in many different teaching scenarios to support learning. This thesis examines the current uses of wikis in foreign language teaching. It examines how wikis are used in higher education. The paper has presented the literature published within the past five years in the previous section Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Learning Theories. As described in the Introduction online learning is increasingly being implemented in higher education. Social software, including wikis and blogs are increasingly used in teaching. Higher education is in a paradigm shift from a teacher-centered to a more student-centered teaching and learning approach. Web 2.0 skills are part of the required skills portfolio of future graduates entering the workforce. Not only are educa-

34 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 34 tors using wikis, but many institutions and think tanks are recommending educational institutions to increase training in media skills and forecasting the importance of collaboration and the use of technology for learning and online communication in the coming years. Learning how to collaborate and the use of online technology require media literacy skills and new forms of communication skills that need to be incorporated into curricula in all educational settings. After having reviewed previous empirical studies in the field, the researcher conducted a case study with 227 undergraduate students using wikis in their classes in Germany. The researcher examined how the students perceived using wikis for learning and collaboration. In addition, the study also looked at the students previous experience in working with Web 2.0 tools. Finally, the discussion focuses on what role wikis play in the future in education. What pedagogical measures need to be implemented to insure that learning and collaboration are supported by using wikis for coursework? Therefore, the following questions are examined: 1. Do educators in higher education still use wikis for collaboration and learning or are there other tools that are replacing them? 2. Do wikis facilitate students content learning in and outside the classroom? 3. How do students perceive wiki use for coursework to support their collaboration? Part 4: Research on Students Perception on Using Wikis for Learning and Collaboration Methodology Introduction. The goal of this research is to investigate how students perceive using wikis to collaborate and learn in three courses that use wikis in pedagogically different ways. In addition, the research shall identify the previous empirical studies conducted in this field and how learning and collaboration through the use of Web 2.0 technology is beneficial for students. In this study the research questions are described in

35 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 35 the previous section. The study uses a small scale investigation; this is a one-shot case study with a non-experimental design. Background Information (Participants). The research was conducted during summer term which started mid-march and ended in June 2012 in a small public university of applied sciences in Germany. At the time, about 6,200 students were enrolled at the university. The Language Centre offers language courses that are required for undergraduate degree programs. In 2010 several of the English language lecturers started including wikis into their curriculum in order to offer more opportunities to use and embed authentic media (videos and podcasts) as part of their blended-learning portfolio. In addition, the wikis offer opportunities to create new course content, manage online materials or share links with colleagues and students. The Language Centre uses a campus license from PBworks 16 offering 1,000 users unlimited number of wikis for either a single user, a small group, one single class, an entire course with more than one instructor sharing a workspace or a public wiki, such as the Writing Centre. In most cases, the wikis are password protected and only shared with other class members. Each semester between students are enrolled in language courses that use one or more wikis in their English language classes. Training for students and teaching staff is offered on a regular basis. There are two student assistants that work as e-tutors in the Language Centre and offer students help with technical issues and support instructors with administrative maintenance work. I will examine 15 classes using wikis from PBworks within the Language Centre. The English language classes are required. Each language class usually has between 12 and a maximum of 20 students. All classes are taught in a communicative approach and the focus is on learning by doing. A total of 270 students were enrolled in undergraduate majors in business in the summer term This study examines the use of wikis in two different undergraduate degree programs in business: the Bachelors of Science in Business Administration (B.Sc.) and the Bachelors in Arts of Business Administration (B.A.). 16 For further information see It is a provider of free educational or commercial workspaces.

36 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 36 The wiki was the only Web 2.0 tool used in the classes; however, some students also were enrolled in other undergraduate courses available on ILIAS, the campus-wide Learning Management System (LMS) offered by the university 17. I surveyed 15 classes from three different course modules (i.e. three groups of participants). From a total of 270 students that were enrolled in the different classes 226 students participated in the survey. The participation rate (survey total) was 83.7% of all enrolled students, as seen in Table 3. Table 3: Participants and Percentage Surveyed (SPSS Output) Groups n enrolled n surveyed % surveyed Total 270 n= % Simulation % Introduction ,1% ICC ,4% The first group of respondents, known as the Simulation Group, were students of Business English. This course is offered in the second semester of the Bachelor of Science Program in Sankt Augustin. The course meets once a week on campus for 4 hours. It is an English language course at the upper-level, known in Europe as B2-Level proficiency from the Common European Framework of References for Languages (CERF) 18. The second group of respondents (Introduction Group) was enrolled in the Introduction to Business English, an intermediate-level course (CERF/B1) designed for students that have not met the required language proficiency requirements in English for their degree program. It is taught once a week on the Sankt Augustin campus for three hours. The third group of respondents (ICC Group) is the Intercultural Communication, a three-hour course required in the first semester of the BA degree program offered on the Rheinbach campus. This course offers students content material in intercultural communication in English. It is open to students at the intermediate and upper intermediate level (CERF B1/B2). All three groups meet face-to-face once a week on the respective campuses. All wikis in the study are hosted by PBworks and are password protected workspaces that can only be accessed by students in their course. PBworks wikis are user-friendly and do not require any HTML programming skills. It uses a What you 17 ILIAS is an open source learning management platform (LMS) developed by the University of Cologne and is predominately used in German-speaking higher education institutions. (See 18 Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, known as CERF describes the levels of proficiency from a scale of A2-C1. It was developed by the Council of Europe and is widely used in all academic assessment of language proficiency within Europe.

37 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 37 see is what you get (WYSIWYG) user interface and has simple word processing features that are not comparable to the complexity of Microsoft Word. The teachers have administrator rights within their course wiki and can access every workspace in their class. The administrator of the campus license and the e-tutor can access all wikis under the Language Centre s license. Before examining the instruments used in the study, I briefly introduce each course and outline in which ways the students and instructors use the wikis. The three groups use wikis in different ways and this is important when examining the results of the survey. Business English Course Wiki & Company Wiki (Simulation Group). Figure 2: Business English Course Wiki (Simulation Group) The Simulation Group uses two wikis in the course. One wiki is the Business English Course Wiki (course wiki) that is open to all students in the course. The course wiki replaces the use of a traditional course book or university script. The course wiki offers links to many video and listening tasks, offers a platform for course management and provides up-to-date course content. The syllabus and all assignments are offered in customized format for a 12 or 15-week university semester course rather than working with a textbook and CD-ROM not specifically tailored to the needs of the students in the business program. This wiki can only be written and edited by the university teaching team and works as a resource repository. Each semester about 80 to 100 students and 4 to 5 instructors share the platform. The instructors use this wiki as a collaborative teaching platform, but the students cannot contribute to the course wiki.

38 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 38 Figure 3: Company Wiki (Simulation Group) In addition, students are assigned a company wiki for collaborative assignments. During the semester the students complete weekly simulation tasks in class and outside class; afterwards, the tasks are documented in their company wiki. Students are encouraged to collaborate inside and outside the classroom on their assignments. Each week students have about 30 minutes of allocated class time to collaborate on their simulation assignments. This face-to-face class time is designed to encourage communication and collaboration in English. At the end of the semester the students have completed a company e-portfolio that resembles information generally found on a company website. Throughout the semester, a group of 4-5 students work on their simulation tasks which require students to found a fictitious company and use relevant business vocabulary in different simulated business situations. The company wikis are created for the students using a template with several pages added in the side bar, but students are urged to create additional pages and are given instructions and support from an e-tutor to help with any technical challenges. In class the teachers review and highlight the basic wiki functions, such as using spell-check, creating and linking a page or inserting an image. Using the company wikis is compulsory and the final e-portfolio is graded with 14% of the total grade.

39 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 39 Introduction to Business English Course Wiki (Introduction Group). Figure 4: Course Wiki (Introduction Group) The Introduction to Business English Course Wiki is used as a course wiki where all students can also work on their assignments. Four classes with a total of 60 students and four instructors use the Introduction to Business English course wiki. Some pages are locked so that only teachers can edit them. Each student receives a personal wiki page to complete individual tasks. Each member of the course can access the individual student pages and look at the homework or classwork that other students have completed. This open course wiki has brought several incidents of plagiarism in the past semesters as a result that students simply copied the homework from other classmates in the course. The page history function of the wiki can show when a student has entered the homework and what changes were made. In these cases, it was easy to determine who had posted their homework first. The Introduction Group offers students general background in basic business terminology and reviews grammar. It introduces students to the concept of collaboration and peer review. The course is designed not only to refresh English language skills, but to offer an introduction to basic wiki skills so that weaker students can master the required course content in the following semester. The pedagogical design includes media literacy skills as part of the course syllabus to ensure that students are offered background knowledge in basic media skills.

40 LEARNING AND COLLABORATING WITH WIKIS 40 Intercultural Communication Course (ICC Group). Figure 5: Course Wiki (ICC Group) The ICC course with 9 classes and about 130 students is offered to first semester students in the Bachelor of Arts in Business Administration on the Rheinbach campus. It is a required course. The course wiki is used mainly as a course repository, but at the beginning students are asked to introduce themselves on the wiki with a short personal profile. The students are not assigned specific tasks or collaborative projects that need to be documented in the course wiki. All students have the right to contribute content to the course wiki. All group work is done in class and ICC project work is not specifically tailored to the wiki. All pages are accessible to every member of the workspace, but the course wiki is password protected and only students enrolled in the course have access to course materials. Research Approach The three courses (groups) use wikis in different pedagogical ways and the question that arises is whether this plays a significant role in the way students perceive working and learning collaboratively. The first group (Simulation Group) works with one course wiki which is used as a course repository where instructors contribute to course content. In addition, students in groups of 4-5 are assigned a wiki, known as the company wiki, which is used for the simulation tasks the students are required to complete throughout the semester. The second group (Introduction Group) uses the wiki as a course repository. In addition, students are introduced to working with wikis by learning basic web skills such as writing their assignments on a personal page within the course wiki. The third group (ICC Group) uses the wiki