Examining Constructivism in the Education of Students with Learning Disabilities

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1 Running title: CONSTRUCTIVISM AND LEARNING DISABILITIES 1 Assignment #1: Examining Constructivism in the Education of Students with Learning Disabilities Karen Jones ETEC A University of British Columbia

2 CONSTRUCTIVISM AND LEARNING DISABILITIES 2 Examining Constructivism in the Instruction of Students with Learning Disabilities The number of students identified with learning disabilities (LD) in BC accounted for 3.1% of the province s student population in 2009/10. Many of the students in the alternative program in which I teach, whether designated LD or not, display Samson Nashon 23/3/11 7:39 PM Comment [1]: Source? characteristics that fit the Ministry of Education s definition, which states, learning disabilities refers to a number of disorders that may affect the acquisition, organization, retention, understanding or use of verbal or nonverbal information. These disorders affect learning in individuals who otherwise demonstrate at least average abilities essential for thinking and/or reasoning (BC Ministry of Education, 2010, p. 46). While recommended interventions include intense direct instruction, instruction in learning and compensatory strategies, and adaptation of instructional practices and assessment strategies (BC Ministry of Education, 2010, p. 50), my interest is in the role that constructivism may play in educating these students. The following will first examine research reporting on the effectiveness of constructivist methods in the instruction of students with LD, and several constructivist applications in the areas of literacy and mathematics. Next, it will consider some implications for regarding LD students from a social constructivist standpoint, and finally, future directions for creating inclusive constructivist environments will be suggested.

3 CONSTRUCTIVISM AND LEARNING DISABILITIES 3 Research on the Effectiveness of Constructivist Instruction on Students with Learning Disabilities Constructivism as both a philosophy and a theory of learning has impacted the field of education, with instructional practices predicated around the premise that learners actively construct knowledge through interactions with their environment, and that this process is influenced by their prior knowledge and beliefs. Increasingly, constructivist approaches are being applied to academic areas such as language arts and math. However, students may possess learning disabilities that range in severity and may interfere with knowledge construction, with deficits affecting one or more of the following skills (BC Ministry of Education, 2010, p. 46): Oral language (e.g., listening, speaking, understanding) Reading (e.g., decoding, phonetic knowledge, word recognition, comprehension) Written language (e.g., spelling and written expression) Mathematics (e.g., computation, problem solving) Learning disabilities may also involve problems with organizational skills, social perception, social interaction and perspective taking. Each student labeled with LD has unique characteristics that may require different types of teaching programs from children without these disorders (Purdie & Ellis, 2005). Conclusions arising from studies that attempt to measure the effectiveness of constructivist approaches for students with LD may be problematic because of limits to their generalizability as a result of these individualized approaches.

4 CONSTRUCTIVISM AND LEARNING DISABILITIES 4 Literature reviews have criticized constructivist studies for lacking empirical data, being over reliant on description and discussion, and being methodologically flawed due to problems with the implementation of interventions, and bias by strongly proconstructivist viewpoints (Rowe, 2006). Despite the paucity of experimentally based conclusions available in the research regarding the effectiveness of constructivist methods, integration of these methods with direct instruction has been seen to be beneficial to students with LD (Duhaney & Duhaney, 2000; Harris & Graham, 1996; Stone & Reid, 1994). Many students with LD find mastering basic skills difficult, and require more teacherdirected instruction in learning strategies and guided practice. However, researchers have suggested that lack of social skills, motivation, and ability to pay attention to the teacher may be addressed by integrating hands on activities and web based technologies that employ multiple modalities in authentic learning environments. Positive outcomes that have been observed included better attitudes towards school, improved thinking and problem solving skills, and improved reading comprehension (Duhaney & Duhaney, 2000). However, negative outcomes associated with a lack of direct teaching included not learning to read, illegible handwriting, and poor spelling (Harris & Graham, 1996). A number of researchers eschewed a traditional emphasis on rote remedial learning to correct these deficiencies, preferring learning opportunities that encouraged knowledge construction and transfer via explicit questions, smaller inferential steps, more frequent reiteration of background knowledge to facilitate integration with new information (Stone & Reid, 1994). Some acknowledged that

5 CONSTRUCTIVISM AND LEARNING DISABILITIES 5 more empirical work was needed to assess how differences in linguistic and cognitive capabilities impacted socially mediated instruction, but saw the value of establishing regular patterns of communication through reciprocal teaching and small group work to encourage development of social skills and shared perspectives (Stone & Reid, 1994). While little research was found that addressed the effectiveness of online constructivist environments for those with special needs, a more recent application of constructivism involving project based learning (PBL) and its use with students with LD has been studied. In this approach, students worked in groups to determine their own research questions and the methods with which to investigate them. PBL was seen to be an effective way to adapt to students various learning styles, and prompted low achieving students to become motivated and engaged through peer acceptance (Thomas, 2000). Working in teams with peers also helped LD students with their understanding, problem solving, and transfer of learning to new situations (Filippatou & Kaldi, 2010). However, in this study that evaluated the effectiveness of PBL on primary students with LD, the researchers noted that there was little improvement in knowledge retention due to working memory problems. These students also had trouble reading secondary sources for information, and lacked cognitive engagement during the task, tending to busy themselves with superficial activities rather than reflecting on their learning process or the topic (Filippatou & Kaldi, 2010). The authors concluded that LD students needed to be explicitly taught cognitive and metacognitive strategies, and that the teacher needed to structure project work into smaller parts with specific goals. Samson Nashon 23/3/11 7:50 PM Comment [2]: This is quite informative. You have read very relevant literature to your topic!

6 CONSTRUCTIVISM AND LEARNING DISABILITIES 6 Applications of Constructivism with LD Students in Specific Subject Areas Literacy Programs for teaching LD students to write and read may tend to rely on behavioural techniques to focus on skill instruction, with little emphasis on comprehension and integrated approaches that encourage the transfer of skills (Gately, 2007). On the other hand, constructivist approaches such as whole language and the process approach to writing instruction view writing as a process best taught with a practical purpose in authentic and relevant contexts (Graham & Harris, 1994). Research evaluating these methods with special needs students has been limited, however some conclusions regarding the benefits have been tentatively identified. To wit, students typically spent more time writing and less time acquiring the mechanics of writing; increased collaboration was seen to foster self regulation; and integrative learning in one area of language was seen to help learning in other areas. This was considered important with poor readers who are typically poor writers and spellers (Graham & Harris, 1994). However, whole language and process instruction methods have generated controversy among educators of LD students. Research has indicated that special needs students require direct and systematic instruction in spelling and specific writing strategies, as these learners lack the cognitive abilities to acquire them through teacher modeling or in situ during the writing process (Graham & Harris, 1994). As well, special needs students may need instruction in the physical

7 CONSTRUCTIVISM AND LEARNING DISABILITIES 7 mechanics of writing to facilitate their writing output, although computers have greatly helped in this area. A social constructivist approach to assessment and remediation called Dynamic Assessment and Remediation Approach (DARA) has been described by Macrine & Sabbatino (2008) that uses dialogical mediation and reflection to help struggling students develop metacognitive strategies, and encourages the transference of those strategies to new contexts. They claimed that having students interact with the text by arguing for and against different points of view improved reading comprehension for students who were different from the norm (Macrine & Sabbatino, 2008). However, the researchers cautioned that the results of this approach tended to vary with the instructor and the student specific nature of the intervention. Mathematics While at least some of the difficulties students with LD experience in mathematics are related to problems with reading and writing, other common issues include: (Byers, 2009; Graham, Bellert, & Pegg, 2007) Use of inefficient and/or error prone approaches Time consuming mental computations, with a focus on mundane tasks instead of higher order cognitive tasks Memory and recall difficulties, and an inability to approach, structure and solve problem solving tasks Poorly developed number sense Math anxiety

8 CONSTRUCTIVISM AND LEARNING DISABILITIES 8 Attention and motivation Researchers looking at effective practices in mathematics instruction have pointed to a balance of direct and constructivist approaches. Opportunities for focused practice, continual feedback and reinforcement, as well as strategy instruction were key components in programs where special needs students found success (Byers, 2009; Graham et al., 2007). While explicit teaching was identified as being fundamental, the constructivist influence has been seen in the increasing emphasis on situating learning (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2001). More recent mathematic curricula emphasize applications in real life contexts, and collaborative group problem solving and project based learning. Students may be more motivated by these learning environments, but planning needs to be done to fully include those with LD. Peer tutoring, use of technology and multimedia, and hands on activities that are divided into steps that progress from the concrete to the abstract were suggested in order to address a variety of learning styles (Sayeski & Paulsen, 2010). However, what is not clear in the literature is how effective whole group discussions have been on the cognitive restructuring of students with LD. On the other hand, Moscardini (2010) in a recent study showed that children Samson Nashon 23/3/11 7:57 PM Comment [3]: Excellent punchline! with learning difficulties were capable of using a wholly constructivist approach to solving math word problems without prior explicit instruction and with the teacher acting as mediator. While most children come to school with intuitive number knowledge, those with LD hold onto inefficient strategies. Working with the students known number facts in a framework termed Cognitively Guided Instruction (CGI), combined with the use of manipulatives, drawing, counting, and

9 CONSTRUCTIVISM AND LEARNING DISABILITIES 9 discussion, these primary students generally exceeded their previous classroom records of assessment (Moscardini, 2010). Viewing Learning Disabilities Through a Social Constructivist Lens. While most research has tended to be concerned with the cognitive effects of constructivism on learners academic achievement, this philosophy may have a significant influence on how learners are perceived. From a social constructivist point of view, according to Porter (as cited in Ginsberg & Schulte, 2008, p. 85), disabilities are not rooted in persons but instead arising from interactions between persons and their environment. This would indicate that it is a lack of sufficient support between the learner and their environment, which includes the activities, the organizational structure, and the teaching that is the issue, and not the deficiencies of the learner. To meet the continuum of needs that exists in classrooms from this perspective, it seems then that the onus lies in educating teachers rather than identifying and labeling students. This starts with determining best practices for classroom teachers, providing pre service training, and continues with in service professional development to give educators access to a variety of skills needed to create inclusive classrooms that meet the needs of all learners. Future Directions For Instructional Design and Special Needs In order to accommodate the increasing numbers of students with special needs, inclusion needs to be supported with a system wide policy that provides resources at the community, school, and classroom level. While more research

10 CONSTRUCTIVISM AND LEARNING DISABILITIES 10 needs to be done to examine effective interventions, it is clear that there is not a single instructional method, direct, constructivist, or otherwise that can address all learning needs (Purdie & Ellis, 2005). Teachers need to have a flexible repertoire of strategies and know when to use them. To coordinate this outcome, perhaps a wider adoption of either Differentiated Learning or Universal Design for Learning needs to be considered. These frameworks capitalize on the constructivist conditions for learning, as described by Driscoll (2005), but go farther to create learning environments and curricula that are accessible to all learners, in essence, taking the special out of special needs. Comments: Well written paper. Relevant literature used to support Samson Nashon 23/3/11 8:34 PM Comment [4]: Excellent conclusion. arguments and points. You have used your experience and linked to literature in aruing out a case for use to enhance learning for those with learning disabilities. Mark: 38/40

11 CONSTRUCTIVISM AND LEARNING DISABILITIES 11 References BC Ministry of Education. (2010). Special education policy manual. Retrieved from Byers, T. (2009). The BASICS intervention mathematics program for at-risk students. Australian Mathematics Teacher, 65(1), Retrieved from gin.asp&site=ehost-live Driscoll. M.P. (2005). Constructivism. In Psychology of Learning for Instruction (pp ). Toronto, ON: Pearson. Duhaney, L. M. G., & Duhaney, D. C. (2000). Assistive technology: meeting the needs of learners with disabilities. International Journal of Instructional Media, 7(4), p Filippatou, D., & Kaldi, S. (2010). The effectiveness of project-based learning on pupils with learning difficulties regarding academic performance, group work and motivation. International Journal of Special Education, 25(1), 10. Fuchs, L. S., & Fuchs, D. (2001). Principles for the prevention and intervention of mathematics difficulties. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 16(2), doi: / Gately, S. E. (2007). Teaching students with severe disabilities to read: The need for reconciling constructivism. Rivier Academic Journal, 3(1). Retrieved from Ginsberg, S. M., & Schulte, K. (2008). Instructional accommodations: Impact of conventional vs. social constructivist view of disability. Journal of the

12 CONSTRUCTIVISM AND LEARNING DISABILITIES 12 Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 8(2), Graham, L., Bellert, A., & Pegg, J. (2007). Supporting students in the middle school years with learning difficulties in mathematics: Research into classroom practice. Australasian Journal of Special Education, 31(2), doi: / Graham, S., & Harris, K. R. (1994). Implications of constructivism for teaching writing to students with special needs. The Journal of Special Education, 28(3), doi: / Harris, K. R., & Graham, S. (1996). Memo to constructivists: Skills count, too. Educational Leadership, 53(5), Retrieved from gin.asp&site=ehost-live Macrine, S., & Sabbatino, E. (2008). Dynamic assessment and remediation approach: Using the DARA approach to assist struggling readers. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 24(1), doi: / Moscardini, L. (2010). I like it instead of maths : How pupils with moderate learning difficulties in Scottish primary special schools intuitively solved mathematical word problems. British Journal of Special Education, 37(3), Retrieved from Purdie, N., & Ellis, L. (2005). A review of the empirical evidence identifying effective interventions and teaching practices for students with learning difficulties in Years 4, 5 and 6. A report prepared for the Australian Government Department of Education, Science and Training. Camberwell, VIC: Australian Council for

13 CONSTRUCTIVISM AND LEARNING DISABILITIES 13 Educational Research.. Retrieved from Rowe, K. (2006). Effective teaching practices for students with and without learning difficulties: Issues and implications surrounding key findings and recommendations from the National Inquiry into the Teaching of Literacy. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 11(3), Sayeski, K. L., & Paulsen, K. J. (2010). Mathematics reform curricula and special education: Identifying intersections and implications for practice. Intervention in School and Clinic, 46(1), Retrieved from Stone, C. A., & Reid, D. K. (1994). Social and individual forces in learning: Implications for instruction of children with learning difficulties. Learning Disability Quarterly, 17(1), Retrieved from Thomas, J. W. (2000). A review of research on project-based learning. Autodesk Foundation. Retrieved from