Word Meaning. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 12. Mirella Lapata. February 5, School of Informatics University of Edinburgh
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1 Word Meaning Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 12 Mirella Lapata School of Informatics University of Edinburgh mlap@inf.ed.ac.uk February 5, 2016 Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 1
2 Reading: Trevor Harley s The Psychology of Language, Chapter 10 Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 2
3 Recap: Categorization Categorization is one of the classical problems in the field of cognitive science, one with a history dating back to Aristotle. Ability to generalize from experience underlies a variety of common mental tasks Perception, learning, and the use of language. Definitional, prototype, exemplar, and theories theory. Basic-level categories, prototype, family resemblance. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 3
4 How do we Represent the Meaning of Words? Semantic knowledge can be thought of as knowledge about relations among several types of elements, including words, concepts, and percepts. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 4
5 Word-concept relations Knowledge that the word dog refers to the concept dog the word animal refers to the concept animal or the word toaster refers to the concept toaster. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 5
6 Word-concept relations Knowledge that the word dog refers to the concept dog the word animal refers to the concept animal or the word toaster refers to the concept toaster. dog Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 5
7 Word-concept relations Knowledge that the word dog refers to the concept dog the word animal refers to the concept animal or the word toaster refers to the concept toaster. animal Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 5
8 Word-concept relations Knowledge that the word dog refers to the concept dog the word animal refers to the concept animal or the word toaster refers to the concept toaster. toaster Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 5
9 Concept-concept relations Knowledge that dogs are a kind of animal, that dogs have tails and can bark, or that animals have bodies and can move. animal vertebrate mammal canine dog Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 6
10 Concept-percept, Concept-action Relations Knowledge about what dogs look like, how a dog can be distinguished from a cat, or how to pet a dog or operate a toaster. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 7
11 Word-word relations Knowledge that the word dog tends to be associated with or co-occur with words such as tail, bone, and cat or that the word toaster tends to be associated with kitchen, oven, or bread. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 8
12 Word-word relations Knowledge that the word dog tends to be associated with or co-occur with words such as tail, bone, and cat or that the word toaster tends to be associated with kitchen, oven, or bread. What are the associates of apple? Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 8
13 Word-word relations Knowledge that the word dog tends to be associated with or co-occur with words such as tail, bone, and cat or that the word toaster tends to be associated with kitchen, oven, or bread. What are the associates of apple? red orange pie worm Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 8
14 Semantic Networks Emphasizes abstract conceptual structure, focusing on relations among concepts and relations between concepts and percepts or actions. This knowledge is represented in terms of systems of abstract propositions, such as canary bird, canary has bird wings. Concepts represented in network of interconnecting nodes Distance between nodes represents similarity between them. Concept defined in terms of the connections with other concepts Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 9
15 Collins and Quillian (1969) animal bird mammal robin penguin pig Useful for representing natural kind terms. Economical method for storing information. Most common links are links Attributes stored at lowest possible node at which they are true of all lower nodes in network Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 10
16 Collins and Quillian (1969) animal breathes has heartbeat bird has wings lays eggs, flies mammal bears live young robin has red breast penguin swims, cannot fly pig farm animal pink skin Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 11
17 Sentence Verification Task Participants are presented with simple facts and have to press one button if the sentence is true, another if it is false. The reaction time is an index of how difficult the decision was. (1) A robin is a robin. (2) A robin is a bird. (3) A robin is an animal. (4) A robin is a fish. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 12
18 Sentence Verification Task Participants are presented with simple facts and have to press one button if the sentence is true, another if it is false. The reaction time is an index of how difficult the decision was. (1) A robin is a robin. (baseline measure) Yes! (2) A robin is a bird. (3) A robin is an animal. (4) A robin is a fish. Response time to (1) < (2) < (3) < (4). Participants start off from robin and travel through the network until they find the necessary infromation. The farther away the information the slower the response time. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 12
19 Sentence Verification Task Participants are presented with simple facts and have to press one button if the sentence is true, another if it is false. The reaction time is an index of how difficult the decision was. (1) A robin is a robin. (baseline measure) Yes! (2) A robin is a bird. Yes! (3) A robin is an animal. (4) A robin is a fish. Response time to (1) < (2) < (3) < (4). Participants start off from robin and travel through the network until they find the necessary infromation. The farther away the information the slower the response time. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 12
20 Sentence Verification Task Participants are presented with simple facts and have to press one button if the sentence is true, another if it is false. The reaction time is an index of how difficult the decision was. (1) A robin is a robin. (baseline measure) Yes! (2) A robin is a bird. Yes! (3) A robin is an animal. Yes! (4) A robin is a fish. Response time to (1) < (2) < (3) < (4). Participants start off from robin and travel through the network until they find the necessary infromation. The farther away the information the slower the response time. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 12
21 Sentence Verification Task Participants are presented with simple facts and have to press one button if the sentence is true, another if it is false. The reaction time is an index of how difficult the decision was. (1) A robin is a robin. (baseline measure) Yes! (2) A robin is a bird. Yes! (3) A robin is an animal. Yes! (4) A robin is a fish. No! Response time to (1) < (2) < (3) < (4). Participants start off from robin and travel through the network until they find the necessary infromation. The farther away the information the slower the response time. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 12
22 Sentence Verification Task animal robin bird penguin mammal pig Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 13
23 Sentence Verification Task animal robin bird penguin mammal pig A robin is a robin. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 13
24 Sentence Verification Task animal robin bird penguin mammal pig A robin is a bird. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 13
25 Sentence Verification Task animal robin bird penguin mammal pig A robin is an animal. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 13
26 Sentence Verification Task animal robin bird penguin mammal pig A robin is a fish. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 13
27 Problems with the Collins and Quillian Model Not all information is easily represented in hierarchical form (what is the relation between truth, justice, and law?) Experiments confound distance in network with conjoint frequency (robin and bird often co-occur). The model makes some incorrect predictions: (5) < (6), (7) < (8), (9) < (10). (5) A cow is an animal. (6) A cow is a mammal. (7) A pine is a church. (8) A pine is a flower. (9) A robin is a bird. (10) A penguin is a bird. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 14
28 Problems with the Collins and Quillian Model Not all information is easily represented in hierarchical form (what is the relation between truth, justice, and law?) Experiments confound distance in network with conjoint frequency (robin and bird often co-occur). The model makes some incorrect predictions: (5) < (6), (7) < (8), (9) < (10). (5) A cow is an animal. (6) A cow is a mammal. (7) A pine is a church. (8) A pine is a flower. (9) A robin is a bird. (10) A penguin is a bird. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 14
29 Problems with the Collins and Quillian Model Not all information is easily represented in hierarchical form (what is the relation between truth, justice, and law?) Experiments confound distance in network with conjoint frequency (robin and bird often co-occur). The model makes some incorrect predictions: (5) < (6), (7) < (8), (9) < (10). (5) A cow is an animal. (6) A cow is a mammal. (7) A pine is a church. (8) A pine is a flower. (9) A robin is a bird. (10) A penguin is a bird. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 14
30 Problems with the Collins and Quillian Model Not all information is easily represented in hierarchical form (what is the relation between truth, justice, and law?) Experiments confound distance in network with conjoint frequency (robin and bird often co-occur). The model makes some incorrect predictions: (5) < (6), (7) < (8), (9) < (10). (5) A cow is an animal. (6) A cow is a mammal. (7) A pine is a church. (8) A pine is a flower. (9) A robin is a bird. (10) A penguin is a bird. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 14
31 Collins and Loftus (1975) Model is based on idea of spreading activation. More complex network structure with links varying in strength or distance; structure is no longer hierarchical. Connections represent: categorical relations, degree of association, typicality. When you think about a concept, that concept will become activated, and that activation will spread to other concepts that are linked to it. Verification times depend on closeness concepts in network. Hard to see what sort of experiments could falsify this model. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 15
32 Collins and Loftus (1975) street vehicle car bus truck house orange fire engine fire red blue apple roses tulips flowers fruit pear Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 16
33 Feature Comparison Model animate feathered has a beak flies sings bird robin penguin pig + Concepts are represented as a set of features. Features are ordered in terms of definingness. 1 Defining features: essential to meaning of word and relate to preperties that things must have to be members of category. Characteristic features: are usually but not necessarily true (most birds can fly but penguins and ostriches cannot). 1 Distinction between defining and characteristic features is arbitrary. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 17
34 Feature Comparison Model defining characteristic animate feathered has a beak flies sings bird robin penguin pig + Concepts are represented as a set of features. Features are ordered in terms of definingness. 1 Defining features: essential to meaning of word and relate to preperties that things must have to be members of category. Characteristic features: are usually but not necessarily true (most birds can fly but penguins and ostriches cannot). 1 Distinction between defining and characteristic features is arbitrary. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 17
35 Sentence Verification (Again) A robin is a bird. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 18
36 Sentence Verification (Again) A robin is a bird. Stage 1 Compare all features of robin and bird to dermine featural similarity. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 18
37 Sentence Verification (Again) A robin is a bird. Stage 1 Compare all features of robin and bird to dermine featural similarity. High Overlap Fast yes Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 18
38 Sentence Verification (Again) A robin is a pig. Stage 1 Compare all features of robin and pig to dermine featural similarity. Low Overlap fast no Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 18
39 Sentence Verification (Again) A penguin is a bird. Stage 1 Compare all features of penguin and bird to dermine featural similarity. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 18
40 Sentence Verification (Again) A penguin is a bird. Stage 1 Compare all features of penguin and bird to dermine featural similarity. Stage 2 Compare defining features to dermine featural similarity. Slow yes Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 18
41 Problems with Feature Comparison Model Many words do not have obvious defining features! Model is tied to sentence verification paradigm. Probabilistic feature model (Smith and Medin, 1981). Distinguishes between essential defining features of concepts and aspects of meaning for identifying instances of concept. Features are weighted based on salience and probability of being true for category (has four limbs vs bears live young) Candidate instance is accepted if exceeds some critical weighted sum of features. Categories now have fuzzy boundaries. How is this model different from prototype model? Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 19
42 Where Do the Features Come from? Participants are presented with set of concept names Asked to write down up to n features they think are important for each concept McRae et al (2005) collected feature norms for 541 living and nonliving concepts Largest set in existence (2,526 features), collected over several years Reveal psychologically salient dimensions of meaning Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 20
43 Where Do the Features Come from? Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 21
44 Where Do the Features Come from? moose/elk Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 21
45 Where Do the Features Come from? moose/elk Feature Freq Classification is large 27 visual has antlers 23 visual has legs 14 visual is brown 10 visual has fur 7 visual has hooves 5 visual eaten as meat 5 function lives in woods 14 encyclopedic an animal 17 taxonomic a mammal 9 taxonomic Feature norms from McRae et al. (2005). Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 21
46 Representing Word Meaning eats seads has beak has claws has handlebar trolley robin has wheels has wings has feathers made of metal made of wood McRae spent 10 years collecting his feature norms! (541 basic-level nouns). What about verbs or abstract concepts (e.g., move, peace)? But, humans naturally express word meaning using features. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 22
47 Representing Word Meaning eats seads has beak has claws has handlebar trolley robin has wheels has wings has feathers made of metal made of wood McRae spent 10 years collecting his feature norms! (541 basic-level nouns). What about verbs or abstract concepts (e.g., move, peace)? But, humans naturally express word meaning using features. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 22
48 Representing Word Meaning eats seads has beak has claws has handlebar trolley robin has wheels has wings has feathers made of metal made of wood McRae spent 10 years collecting his feature norms! (541 basic-level nouns). What about verbs or abstract concepts (e.g., move, peace)? But, humans naturally express word meaning using features. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 22
49 Summary How do we represent the meaning of words? How is semantic knowledge organized? Semantic information in encoded in networks of linked nodes. Collins and Quillian network emphasizes hierarchical relations and cognitive economy; sentence verification times. Does not explain similarity and relatedness effects. Spreading activation model does but is difficult to falsify. Word meaning can be decomposed into semantic features. Feature-list theories account for sentence verification times by postulating that we compare lists of defining and characteristic features. Next lecture: associationist view of meaning, vector space model. Informatics 1 CG: Lecture 11 Word Meaning 23
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