2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE. participle (ending in ing) and can behave as a verb within a clause (so that it may

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1 2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Definition of Gerund Harper (2006:234) states that a gerund is identical in form to the present participle (ending in ing) and can behave as a verb within a clause (so that it may be modified by an adverb or have an object), but the clause as a whole (sometimes consisting of only one word, the gerund itself), acts as a noun within the larger sentences. Martin (1986:502) states that gerund is that form of the verb which ends in-ing, and has the force of a noun and a verb, gerund has the same form as the present participle. However, it functions differently in the sentences, it is always can function in any noun position. Example : Playing football is my hobby. Within the clause Playing football. The word Playing behaves as a ver; in particular the phrase football is the object that verb. But the whole clause playing football acts as a noun phrase within the sentences as a whole; it is the subject of the verb is. Gerund is a noun derived from the ver + ing. When observed, gerund has the same from with the present participle. When we use a verb in ing form more like a verb or an adjective, it is usually present participle.

2 2.2 Forms of Gerund The simple gerund 1) Subject of verb The subject in gerund sentence usually located in the beginning of the sentences. Gerund is used as the subject of a sentences on its basis have the following characteristic: 1) Verb + ing 2) In front of the predicate 3) The subject of the sentences 4) It has the meaning of an object that is the subject of the sentences Example: a) Running in the morning is good for health. b) Swimming is a good and cheap sport. c) Playing golf is an expensive sport. d) Collecting stamps is one of my little sister s hobbies. e) Smoking cigar is not good for health. 5) Object of verb The gerund can be the object of a verb. The form of an object in a gerund phrase may depend on what precedes the gerund. Gerund is used as the object of a sentences has the following characteristics :

3 1) It is behind a predicate. 2) It functions as an object that describes the predicate of sentences. 3) It has the meaning of anoun which is the object of the sentences. Example: a) My father likes hunting in the forest. b) My mother dislike keeping pet animals. c) We enjoy living in this city very much. d) My elder sister loves playing guitar. Certain verbs in English are followed by verbals either gerunds or infinitives which are considered as the objects of these verbs. The gerund (-ing form) and the infinitive ( to + base form ) of verbs may be used as nouns, and therefore they sometimes function as the object of a verb. In idiomatic English, certain verbs are followed only by the gerund, certain verbs by the infinitive, and certain verbs by either the gerund or the infinitive. The following is a reference list of some common verbs. Here are verbs can followed by gerund.

4 The examples of verbs followed by gerunds object 1. admit 23. Forget** 45. Risk 2. advise 24. Imagine 46. Start* 3. allow 25. Hate* 47. Stop** 4. anticipate 26. Keep 48. Suggest 5. appreciate 27. Like* 49. Support 6. avoid 28. Love* 50. Tolerate 7. begin* 29. Mention 51. Try 8. can t bear 30. Mind 52. Understand 9. can t help 31. Miss 10. can t stand 32. Neglect* 11. celebrate 33. Postpone 12. complete 34. practice 13. consider 35. Prefer* 14. delay 36. Prevent 15. deny 37. Prohibit 16. deserve 38. Quit 17. detest 39. Recall 18. discuss 40. Recommend 19. Dislike 41. Regret* 20. Enjoy 42. Remember** 21. Escape 43. Resent 22. Finish 44. Resist

5 1) May be followed by a gerund or an infinitive : *without a change in meaning/ ** with a change in meaning. 2) May be followed by an object : + and infinitive. (He advise us to go to college) /++ and a gerund. (She appreciates your helping.) 3) May be followed by a that-clause. Subjunctive verb Examples : a) He admitted stealing my little sister s money b) He avoid answering ourteacher s questions. c) The committee delayed making a decision. d) My father has stopped smoking. e) Jack suggested going to the beach. f) He has finished typing the report. g) He mentioned meeting the governer at the reception. 1) Object of a preposition Any verb used as the object in a prepositional takes the form of a gerund. Most gerund after prepositions are subjects, especially those in adverbial prepositional. Example: a) I dream about having much money. b) I am tired of studying alone. c) She is fond of eating pizza. d) I am interested in making model airplanes

6 e) We will not be successful without working seriously every time. f) I am bored with swimming. g) I am tired of waiting in the airport Object of a preposition consist of two parts : 1) Nominal function of prepositional gerund Any verb used as the object in a prepositional phrase takes the form of a gerund. Most gerund phrases after prepositions are subjectless, especially those in adverbial prepositional phrases. Such gerund phrases function as prepositional objects of verb. A great many of the verbs listed under prepositional objects in the chapter on prepositions take such gerund objects. Example: a) He insisted on paying the entire bill for dinner. b) She often dreams about having a lot of money to spend on luxuries. The word to after the following verbs is a preposition rather than the sign of the infinitive and therefore requires a gerund after it: accustom oneself, allude, confess, confine oneself, dedicate oneself, limit oneself, look forward, object, plead guilty, reconcile oneself, resign oneself, resort, and revert. a) He objected to their entering the factory without permission. b) We look forward to seeing you again. 2) Adjectival function of prepositional gerund These adjectival constructions appearing after nouns begin mostly with of or for.

7 There are two main types : a) Those prepositional gerund phrase that follow nouns from verbs or adjectives. Example: a) His pretense of being rich didn t fool anyone. b) Their preparations for travelling abroad were very time-consuming. c) He spoke of the necessity of hiring more men. b) Those prepotional gerund phrase appearing after nouns that are nonderivational. Such as adjectival constructions are mostly adjective clause equivalents. These phrases are sometimes interpreted as appositives to the nouns that precede them. Example: a) The money for travelling around the country (=with which they could travel around the country) was soon used up. b) This is not a good way of doing it (=in which you can do it) c) The time for making excuses (=in which you can make excuses) is past. Other prepositions introducing gerund phrases after adjectives are : a) About Example : Pat is angry about walking in the rain. b) For Example : Sandy is famous for singing songs. c) At Example: He is clever at skateboarding.

8 d) Of Example: Thet are afraid of losing the match. e) By Example : I was annoyed by the dog s barking all night. 2) Subjective Complement Subjective Complement as a predicate noun. Example : a) Nina s hobby is cooking. b) Deni s favourite sport is fishing. 3) Appositive The function of appositive is to give explaining about the information in the gerund sentences. Example : a) Her husband insists on one thing, her cleaning the house ever day. b) My hobby is swimming, it is not too expensive. c) I do not like quarelling, a useless job The Gerund Phrase Agerund phrase is made up of a gerund and all words that can modify it. The words or phrase that can modify a gerund are an adjevtive, adverb, and a prepositional phrase, plus it can have a direct object. Example : 1) The course s goal is providing students with knowledge of basic math.

9 The gerund phrase is providing students and is used as the predicate noun in the sentences. The gerund is providing and the direct object of that gerund is (inproviding whom?) students. The prepositional phrase with knowledge modifies providing and the prepositional phrase of basic math modifies knowledge. 2) Frequently asking for funds may hinder receiving them. a) The first gerund phrase is frequently asking for funds.the gerund is asking. Frequently answer, when?, and thus is an adverb, modifying the gerund, asking. For funds is an adverb prepositional phrase answering the question, why, asking? This entire phrase is the subject of the sentence. b) There is a second gerund phrase in this sentence. It is receiving them. This whole phrase is the direct object in the sentence, answering the question, may hinder what? receiving funds. Receiving is the gerund and funds is the direct object of the gerund. Receiving what?...funds. 2.3 The patterns of Gerund 1) Adjective + Preposition + Gerund Some these words also used in gerund, they are: afraid of, interested in, clever at, crazy about, worried about, good at. Examples : a) He s afraid of going by plane. b) I am interested in visiting the museum. c) He is clever at skateboarding. d) The girl is crazy about playing tennis.

10 e) I m worried about making mistakes. f) My brother good at singing. 1. Verb + Preposition + Gerund Some these words used in this pola, they are: gave up, insisted on, thought of, objected to not, forward to, confessed to. Examples : a) He gave up smoking because of his doctor s advice. b) Jenny insisted on buying that cellphone instead of this one. c) Have you ever thought of studying abroad? d) My older sister objected to not being allowed to go out with her friends. e) I am looking forward to seeing you soon. f) No one has confessed to stealing my money yet. 2. Noun + Preposition + Gerund Some words used in this pola, they are: choice of, intention of, excuse for, method for, reason for. Examples : a) The teacher gave us a choice of taking another exam. b) I had no intention of hurting your feeling. c) He always has an excuse for being late. d) Have you found the best method for improving your English yet? e) Your reason for getting bad grades is a big nonsense. 3. Preposition + Gerund Some words used in this pola, they are: before, by, after, without, besides.

11 Examples : a) Before going to bed, he turned off the lights. b) She avoided him by walking on the opposite side of the road. c) We arrived in Madrid after driving all night. d) He told the joke without laughing. e) Besides singing the song, she also dance. 4. Verb + Object + Preposition + Gerund Some verb used in this pola, they are: stop for, thank for, forgive for, congratulate on. Examples : a) My father wants to stop for smoking. b) Susan need to forgive for blaming. c) My family thank for his helping d) I said to my friend congratulate on wedding heald. 2.4 The Function of Gerund There are eight function of gerund in a sentence: 1) As a subject of sentences Examples: a) Studying needs time and patience. b) Reading English is easier than speaking it. c) Having a lot of money is better than having a little. d) Writing and speaking are two different aspects in a language. e) Dropping out of school has caused him hard to find a good job.

12 2) As the object of sentence Examples : a) He is clever at teaching mathematics b) My father likes reading foreign newspapers. c) I find working in the garden very relaxing. d) I can t understand her losing the ring. 3) As a Complement The function of gerund as a complement in a sentence be found when the v-ing as located after the auxiliary be (is, am, are, was, were). Examples: a) One of her hobbies is collecting foreign stamps. b) My elder sister s profession is teaching English. c) My mother sister s profession is singing at a night club. d) That dog s habits are chewing leather shoes and jumping on the sofa. e) My favorite activity during summer is sunbathing. 4) After a preposition Preposition following with gerund are : after, before, to, about, without, at, on and with. Examples: a) I will call you after arriving at the office. b) Please have a drink before leaving. c) I am looking forward to meeting you. d) Do you object to working late?

13 e) Tara always dreams about going on holiday. f) He went without saying anything. g) He s very quick at adding figures. h) She insisted on carrying her baby to the meeting. i) I completely agree with moving to the United States. 5) After certain verbs Some verbs always following with gerund are: complete, discuss, hope, practice, dislike. Examples: a) He finally completed writing his thesis. b) We have discussed opening a branch here. c) I keep hoping they will come. d) They practise throwing the ball every morning. e) I dislike living in this city. f) He can t bear being laughed at. 6) After possessive adjective Examples: a) His leaving will make them sad. b) Your coming will make me happy c) Our next meeting will be held early next week. d) My dancing is not good as yours. e) Her singing is slow. 7) After certainty idioms expressions

14 Examples: a) It s no use begging like a beggar. b) It s no good getting angry at once. c) There s no getting around it. d) There s no harm in trying. 8) Gerund to show short prohibition Examples: a) No smoking! b) No talking! c) No spitting! d) No passing!