The Vulture Glyph and the Nasalized Uvular Trill / / in Middle-Egyptian Philadelphia, PA Feb. 28, 2016 Asar Imhotep

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1 The Vulture Glyph and the Nasalized Uvular Trill / / in Middle-Egyptian Philadelphia, PA Feb. 28, 2016 Asar Imhotep The purpose of this article is to demonstrate, linguistically, that the vulture grapheme in the ancient Egyptian ss-mdw-ntr, at the time of the Middle-Kingdom, was in fact a liquid consonant: more specifically a nasalized uvular trill. To confirm this argument, examples will be shown from various Bantu languages, such as ciluba and kikongo, as Bantu languages are more conservative and more representative of the parent Negro-Egyptian language. From there we will confirm the sound value of the vulture grapheme by mining related African languages for the word for vulture and demonstrate that the ancient Kmt.jw utilized the acrophonic principle mapping the sound values to the initial monoliteral graphemes. Theoretical assumptions: All monoliterals are consonants, with a CV structure. The acrophonic principle was utilized by the inventor(s) of ss-mdw-ntr to map the first consonant of the word for the object that the symbol depicted. For example, if we wanted an image of a house to represent the phoneme [h] in English, the acrophonic principle could be utilized as the word house begins with an [h] sound. Likewise, if we wanted a grapheme to represent the English [m] sound, we could use an image of money as the word money begins with [m]. This principle was applied in Km.t and was utilized in the writing scripts that were influenced by mdw-ntr in the Near East: e.g., Hebrew and Greek. The primary symbols did not represent pure vowels. In the writing script of ss-mdw-ntr you will often find the syllabic inverse of terms. For example C 1 C 2 will also have the same form C 2 C 1. For example, we may see something like toro and roto with the same meaning. This is because of the nature of Negro-Egyptian in which the early N-E split into groups that favored one syllabic form (e.g., toro) while another chose the other (e.g., roto) with the absolute same semantic value(s). Over time these terms were borrowed into the respective languages and often went through their own sound changes (e.g., toro > suru) with slightly different semantic shifts. We will see examples of this in ciluba and kikongo below. Page 1 of 29

2 Although the focus of this presentation is the sound value of the G1 glyph, in passing we will also deal with the D36 arm glyph and its correspondences in Bantu. I have found that this phoneme/grapheme corresponds to /k/, /g/, and /ng/ most often in Bantu. A few researchers have proposed the following sound values for D36: Satzinger (2003: 234): a = d; corresponds to Semitic a (and ḡ) Allen (2010: 15): a = d; or Semitic ayin Allen (2013: xi): a = [ ˤ ] uvular glide (or stop); a = d/ḍ in earlier Egyptian Mboli (2010: 268): a = h [Ɂ], i Bilolo (2011: 236): a = a, e(n) Loprieno (1995: 33): a = [ʕ] (pharyngeal) I accept the proposal of Mboli (2010) that the G1 grapheme represents a nasalized uvular trill [ ]. The uvular trill is described below. Features of the Uvular Trill Its manner of articulation is trill, which means it is produced by directing air over the articulator so that it vibrates. Its place of articulation is uvular, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue (the dorsum) at the uvula. Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds. The G1 glyph is that of a vulture and is transliterated as /A/ [A in Manuel de Codage]. Modern Egyptian dictionaries claim this sound is a glottal stop. More recent investigations have uncovered that this glyph is actually a liquid consonant: i.e., /l/ or an /r/ sound. Alain Anselin in his article, "L oiseau b3, Page 2 of 29

3 , avec des «l». Deuxième partie." (2008: 10) - i-medjat n 2, décembre 2008, suggests that the /A/ grapheme is indeed a liquid as we can see in the compared examples provided by him in the citation below (in French). Anselin (2011: 49), in his article, Some Notes about an Early African Pool of Cultures from which Emerged the Egyptian Civilisation (2011), provides us with more examples of this fact. b3 < *b-l, soul (Old Kingdom; Wb I, 411; on the identification of /3/ as /l/, see above and Anselin 2007a): West Chadic (Nigeria): Angas-sura: bĕl, reason, sense, to be wise, intelligence, understanding (Takács 2004, 31); Central Chadic: Matakam (Cameroon): *bl, genius, spirit, mboko, belbele-hay, genius ; Niger-Congo: Fulfulde (Cameroon): ηbeelu (ηgu), principe vital de l homme menacé d être dévoré par les mangeurs d âme (Noye 1989, 40; see also, Anselin 2007b, 92); Semitic: *bāl, spirit, mind ; Aramaic: bl, spirit, intelligence ; Northern Syriac: bālā, reason, attention ; Arabic: bāl, attention, consciousness, mind (Takács 2001, 6). si3 <*s-r, to understand, know > god of the knowledge (Old Kingdom; Wb IV 30, 1-21), written with the hieroglyph of the cloth (Gardiner S32); si3.t, (Pyramid Texts; Coffin Texts variant, sr3.t, identifying /i/ as a reflex of /r/): Central Chadic: Mofu-gudur: sǝr, to know (Barreteau 1988, Page 3 of 29

4 198); Merey: sǝr, to know (Gravina et al. 2003); Udlam: -sǝr, to know (Kinnaird and Oumate 2003); Muyang: sǝr, to get to know (Smith 2003). m33 < *mvl, to see, look, examine (Old Kingdom; Wb II 7, 1-10, 7), phonetically written with the hieroglyph of the sickle (Gardiner U1), the phonetic complement of the vulture (Gardiner G1) or the determinative of the eye (Gardiner D4) (Kahl 2004, 166-7): Cushitic: Agaw: Bilin: miliʡy-, to look, examine ; Kemant: mel-, to examine, observe ; Eastern Cushitic: Oromo: mal-, to think ; Sidamo: mal-, to perceive, advise ; Somali: mala, thought ; Burji: mala, plan (Anselin 2001). Omotic: Wolamo: mil, to believe ; Kafa: mallet, to observe (Dolgopolsky 1973, 180). James P. Allen (2010: 15) notes the following concerning the A glyph in his Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs: A: A kind of l, or perhaps r. This sound began to disappear from the spoken language during the Middle Kingdom. Most words simply lost the consonant, but in some cases, it was replaced by y or by a glottal stop (the catch in the throat at the beginning of the two vowels of uh-oh ). Allen further expounds on this hypothesis in his more updated The Ancient Egyptian Language: An Historical Study (2013: 39): Lutz Edzard, in his text Polygenesis, Convergence, and Entropy: An Alternative Model of Linguistic Evolution Applied to Semitic Linguistics (1998), also suggests that the Egyptian A is a liquid, a reflex of plain /l/ specifically. Page 4 of 29

5 We also have the commentary from Antonio Loprieno in his Ancient Egyptian: A linguistic introduction (1995: 31). Page 5 of 29

6 It is Jean-Claude Mboli, in his Origine des langues Africaine (2010: 238), that provides us with the most comprehensive analysis regarding this phoneme. For Mboli, the A grapheme represents an uvular trill, as suggested by Loprieno (1995), however this uvular trill is nasalized: i.e., / /. The following tables are from pages of Mboli (2010) with their English translations. Formule * ĭ- : M-E A- (r-) : Copte ø- (r-) : Sango y- : Zandé h- : Hausa r- (h-) : Somali r- (il-) M-E Coptic Sango Zandé Hausa Somali Aw to be long woy to be long y to be long Agb flood wcb flood rāɓā dew roob rain AH.t field iwhe field yaka field hara field rmw.t tears rmeij tears hũmɛ tears h ā tears ilmo tears Ab.t family riɓā multiply 1 beel community 1 The noun corresponds to a collection of elements of the same nature, that is to say, a family. Page 6 of 29

7 Formule *- ĭ : M-E -A (-r) : Copte -i (-r) : Sango -l, (-Ṽ) : Zandé -ri : Hausa -li (-ri) : Somali r (-l) M-E Coptic Sango Zandé Hausa Somali lége lug leg/foot "path/road" za child si child wiri child wiil child ka other kiri alone/single kil solely keli alone/single HqA chief ƙōli summit TA.y man kóli man sa posterior soi posterior sã tail sa(h)a tail sal posterior za bird sar duck zari bird pa fly papwi fly baal wing pa prior pã prior pɛrɛ precede fārì beginning bil- new Formule *- ŭ : M-E -A (-A-) : Copte -oy- : Sango -ng- : Zandé -ng- : Hausa -ng- : Somali -n M-E Coptic Sango Zandé Hausa Somali ba.w magic ngàngu power mangu magic qaa hill koi highland gangara mountain gangarḕ valley sma tuff of ngi hair mangi hair hair [d]wa.t tooyi tòngò star tongu Venus Venus 2 morning maa.t truth rɛng truth run truth Formule *- ă : M-E -A : Copte -a- : Sango -V (-r-) : Zandé -r- : Hausa -r- : Somali -r (-r-) M-E Coptic Sango Zandé Hausa Somali wfa speak pà speech fura speak fir discourse ba soul bai soul b liver bɛrɛ liver beer liver qah earth kah earth kp r country qaran nation qab intestine rɛ cord ƙ r cord tò to send r - to send ūrā to send dur to send bah phallus bah phallus gbà copulate bū rā penis Buuryo foreskin pa.t cake pai egg para egg As noted previously, the ancient Egyptian writing script and its phonetic mapping is based on acrophonic principle. In the acrophonic principle, only the first consonant in a pluriconsonantal sign is kept, 2 Mboli has DwA.t when it should be dwa.t. Page 7 of 29

8 regardless of its phonetic strength (Loprieno, 1995: 24).We can verify that the G1 glyph has the value of /l/ or /r/ by examining the word for bird or vulture in the Afro-Asiatic languages (from the Tower of Babel database). Proto-Afro-Asiatic: *rahaw/y- bird ; Semitic: *rahw- or *raʔ- 'crane' or 'red kite'; Western Chadic: *ray(aw)- 'bird'; East Chadic: *rā - < *rahay- 'vulture'; Low East Cushitic: *rahaw- 'large bird' ; Hebrew rāʔā 'red kite'; Arabic rahw-; Proto-Semitic: *rahw- or *raʔ-; Proto- WChadic: *ray(aw)- 'bird'; Bolewa: rayo, yaro [Bn:22], met. r [CLR]; Karekare: r [ShV]; Ngamo: r [ShV]; Bele: r [ShB]; Proto-EChadic: *ray- vulture ; Migama: r [JMig] {Notes: cf. Dangaleat r 'heron' [Fd]}; Proto-Low East Cushitic: *rahaw- 'large bird'; Arbore: raw. I argue that the G1 sign aligns more with East Chadic *rāy vulture. Compare also with Yorùbá arawo vulture. Compare with Hausa ùngùlu vulture as a possible syllabic inverse (kweke dialect of Mboli). The following tables are my own comparisons with correspondences in ciluba and kikongo with Egyptian for the A phoneme in the first, last, and intervocalic consonant positions. Where applicable other languages will be included in the last column. 3 Ax.w Table 1: A in C 1 position M-E -A ciluba l- (d-, t-) cikam ciluba African cognates "benefactions, good, -lenga "beautiful, good, to excellent things, improve, be good, be glorifications, ability, beautiful, be mastery" advantageous, be at peace, be sure" Ax "spirit, successful, right, be beneficial, useful, profitable, glorious one, good, beneficial, advantageous, fame, worthy of, devoted to, to please" -lengele Ax.w sunlight, sunshine, light j.ax.w shine (the sun) AxAx stars < Ax flame, fire ka.dilu lu.dimi "good, nice, pleasant, beautiful, useful, advantageous, course" fire flame (PB *-dʊng- good, beautiful ); Sumerian dug be good ; Omotic *lak- "good"; PB *-dang- shine ; Kikongo lunga "light a, make or blow fire"; "a smithy, forge, foundry, a gale, blast, a strong wind ; Kikongo nlaku "a flame" 3 This is a work in progress and are notes taken from my unpublished manuscript Aaluja: Rescue, Reinterpretation, and the Restoration of Major Ancient Egyptian Themes, Vol. II. Madu-Ndela Press. Philadelphia, PA. Page 8 of 29

9 cikam ciluba African cognates Ax "Flood season" di.ntanki flood Kikongo langa "to inundate, deluge, overflow, swamp, flood, cover up, bury (hide)" (langama "to be overwhelmed"); Kikongo langa "overwhelm" (langwa "overwhelmed") Ax abundance -lunga Ax successful, spiritual power, intellectual ability. -dinga lweji [-langa reflect, meditate ] Aq "enter" [-bwela to enter ] njila "extend, lengthen"; "swell, inflate, to take large proportions (events...)" reason path, passage, route Kikongo lungulua to fill to overflowing, heap up, put plenty, put much, many, amass, pour out (in abundance) ; Kikongo lunga, whether the right was on the winning side or not, hence to win (a cause, palaver); to prove one's self right in a palaver, master, overcome, beat, defeat. Kikongo diuka enter ; Somali lug "foot," Sango lege "path." lungila arrive, reach ; [M-E rw.i "leave," Sango lo id., Zandé ru "be standing, to stand"] Page 9 of 29

10 Aa.w cikam ciluba African cognates plaster, surfacing, -langula extend, coat, smear coating lungakana - become long or longer, extend, see or meet someone ; Kikongo lenga "to smear on, daub, rub on, smooth over, spread (as mud, butter, etc.)"; lungilangana have the same length, have the same size, compete ); Aaa Ax x Ax.w to smooth, to spread, to coat spirit, glorified ancestor : spirit, personalities. -laluka increase, extend, to be increased, extended, raised ; aadija spread out, spreading ; Kikongo lenga to spread -longa "pass away, die" Isizulu: mu-lungu "blessed ancestral spirit" Vandau: mulungu "blessed ancestral spirit"; Mbochi: le.ku, i.ku "death" Aaa.ty / Aaa.j to fly aloft Kikongo sungela flung away Aq / j.aq rise (heavenwards); -juula raise, lift, remove by lifting ; arise ; arouse Ax.w power (a god or of a god), mastery (over work) [Wb I S 15], a master, magic, magical words. kuulu above, in the air, standing; time (atmospheric conditions) -longa study, learn, to master PB *-dͻng- speak PB *-dòg- "to bewitch, to curse" Kikongo lunga master, Page 10 of 29

11 cikam ciluba African cognates Ax.yt room, storeroom ntàngu circle, domain, field (place) PB *-dágò- "a house"; Ax.t eye of god Aa "hesitate, be anxious" -eelakaja -eelakana "to hesitate, rendering uncertain, indecisive, go haywire" "hesitation, be uncertain, undecided, doubt" Ax intellectual ability cye.lèkèjì "hypothesis" Kikongo lôngi theory -langa ~ -nanga extort, to lecture, to teach, instruct Ax.t uraeus; diadem nnyòka snake PB *jókà snake Ak bind -lunga bind, connect -tènga tie, bind Aaw container, box Kikongo nkele(a) box ; Table 2: A in final position M-E -A ciluba -l (-y, -n, -k) cikam ciluba African cognates ba.w magic dyalù magic; magical practice in which a man is to be transformed qaa hill mu.kùnà mountain, hill a.qa "honest, virtuous, be accurate, right, precise, exact, correct, apt, accuracy, trueness, correctness, straightness, exact sense, go forward, progress, apropos." aakana [kaludi] bwakanyi bwakàne aakanyishisha agree, be suitable, be well, be fair, be timely, be sufficient in number to be complete ; adapt, adjust ; be accomplished ; accuracy, precision justice ; well, properly, as it should (syn. Bimpe); make it worthy, to comply ; Kiswahili kweli true, honesty, really ; ukweli truth ; Page 11 of 29

12 qa cikam ciluba African cognates long, long of time, kule(a) far, far away, Kikongo kolo height. long distance time kale bule(a) long, formally, once; long ago, long time ago, in old times, remote or distant times length, height, depth, duration Kikongo ntela height (of stature) aa great, distinguished, elder son, greatness, influence, leader, Chief Workman, Commander" za.w "beam, baulk (stem + *w, n.suff.; C. soi); bale(a) mu-kalenge bu-kale long, above, large master ; (to) master (v.t. overcome ); be mature kala nkole(a) "Prominant or Powerful Man," Nkole(a) Nkwele(a) "God" (bankole(a) "spirits"), kalunga Great chief ; Kikongo nkula growth ; nkaka chief (Ehret, 1995: 257) PEC *carb- /*cirb-/*curb- "thin stick" (stem + *b anim. suff.; *dz > PEC *c); NOm (Omotic) *žar- "pole" (Dache šara "tree"; Nao (Maji) tsara "roof beam"). m.ka level out, flatten -lànda smooth, level Kikongo leleka level ; Kikongo elengo "smoothness" -salamija -salama make equal, equalize having no depth, being almost flat -sulàme(a) square, flat Page 12 of 29

13 m.xa cikam ciluba African cognates to balance, be straight, mukòlò(ù) pair (of legs) level, match, equal, [thus, matching]. make even balance, parity, bwa.kànà.ngàne equal aa.kànà.ngàne(a) mwena mu.longu pair, balanced, matching, corresponding ; equal, the same age (inverse) parity (inverse) bwena mu.longu m.xa.t balance, scales -salamija make equal, equalize qa loud -aakula to cave in with a crash or bang sound ka to say -aakula "to speak, say, pronounce, enunciate, express" mxa be like, resemble cye.lekeja "clone" mxa ka.t match, equal, counterpoise, make level, balance, be balanced (of tongue) thought, plan, device, plot < -eeleka -eelakana "counterfeit, imitate, mimic" "to adapt, resemble, be balanced" cye.lèkèjì "hypothesis"; Kikongo lôngi theory sxr plan, idea, counsel, determination, governance, intentions, (piece of) advice sa.j to be wise, prudent ; -di.sòòlakaja discernment, to be satisfied prudence sa.t prudence, wisdom < -sòòlakaja clarity, space, separate, judge, analyze saa wise man Kikongo ngindu thought Kikongo -azayi wise Kikongo lu.lungalalu / lungalalu prudence Page 13 of 29

14 cikam ciluba African cognates da tremble kìdìkìdì [l+i>di] tremor, Kikongo trembling, zaka.zaka shaking trembling -selula winnow; shake da to become loose -sùùla untie, undo, remove, make free Kikongo kangula become loose ; -sòòla lighten; make it less tight pa.w primal state of being ; Mulopò(ù) Lord, God : chief paw.t primeval paw.tj goddess primeval god Kikongo ji.tula / ku.tulula untie, undo pa.j to fly -bùùka to fly ; flying ; to take off, soar See also ciibìlà due to fly HqA ruler, chief mukùlù elder, head, president, grandfather, director wfa speak; to discuss ; -lèba to speak, be noisy Kikongo papala to flutter Kikongo vu.muka to fly Kikongo fula to speak (distinctly); Bu.lèbù.lèbù chatter; noise wfa to support -bàya to support; to hold/stand ground ; establish order, organize ba spirit, soul mwoyo(i) "soul, mind, life, heart, will, desire, design, mood, thought, greeting, courage" wfa lung [ci.sùlùsùlù lung ] ffjj lungs PB *papu lung ; Kikongo lu.fulu lungs ; Table 3: A in the median position Page 14 of 29

15 M-E -A- ciluba l- (t-, y-, d-) cikam ciluba African cognates w.ax Water in Hades Kikongo nlangu "water"; Kikongo ka.lûnga ocean maa 4 bank of a river PB *dòngà "river, maa water of the sky [Wb II S 25] [mâyi water ] maa water [Wb II S 25] maa to slaughter [-tengula to cut; circumcise ] maa.w m.aa wood, board, plank extend (limbs), steer, paddle, set out. mu.lungu -lunga object more or less elongated " expand, make an effort to reach, extend, lengthen "; valley, channel" Kikongo nlangu "water"; Loango nlangu "water"; Mpongwe anlingo "water"; Kikongo lueka "make a wound"; deka "cut up small"; Kikongo nlongwa "a tree yielding very good timber for planks" m.aa present, offer, make presentation (to) m.aa.t Barque (of Sun Temple), Maat Barque -dinga leeja "swell, inflate, to take large proportions (events...)" show, reveal, submit, exhibit ; Kikingo lukau "gift, donation, offering, present, dividend" Kikongo nlungu "canoe"; Kimbundu malungu "great canoe, watercraft"; 4 The m- in Egyptian maa is historically a fossilized prefix. Page 15 of 29

16 cikam ciluba African cognates lomb.ola to guide, direct, carry on maa direct, lead, guide, dispatch, throw out maa wah to be correct; be true add, set down, set aside, lay down, lay aside, lay -tàngija -tàngila to take the lead; to guide, to destine ; aim, point to watch ; concern ; consider, contemplate Kikongo longa "to instruct, teach, exhort, counsel, reprove, advise, admonish, educate, train"; longa "to cheer, console, comfort"; Yoruba olùk "a teacher, an instructor, a trainer"; Kikongo longwa "to learn, to be taught" cyè-leke(a) truth, reality Kikongo lunga be accurate, right, be exact, perfect, etc., isizulu utu-lunga accuracy ; -eelejila -eelekeja "add on, to add"; "added unto by giving" "attempt, try, experience; measure, to gauge; imitate, do as; clone [data/information]" ka.t thought, plan, device, plot cye.lèkèjì "hypothesis"; Kikongo lôngi theory maa plume Sango mangi «hair» bah phallus lu.bòlò(ù,à) penis pa.t cake, loaf dyâmpà/mâmpà "loaf" [mùkàta cake ] paa.t quail ci.baala quail ka.baala maa "fabric, linen" mulenga "fabric flap" Kikongo mbolo cake (P. bolo); As we can see from the data above, the correspondences between cikam (Egyptian) /A/ and ciluba/kikongo /l/ (and its variants) are regular. There is even a cikam interchange between /r/ and /A/ as a few examples below attests (note also the /x/ and /a/ correspond as well. Table 4: r and A correspondences in cikam 5 ra "place?" (Budge, 419a) ra "storehouse, chamber, barracks" (Budge, 419a) ra "weapon, tool, working-instrument, arms, armour" (Budge, 419a) Ax.yt a room [Meeks, AL ; ] Ax.w (unknown) 6 5 Note that certain syllables will be inversed in the following comparasons: e.g., ke.kwe ~ kwe.ke. 6 See the T30 determinative of a knife:. Page 16 of 29

17 ra sun, day, daytime Ax.w sunlight, sunshine, light AxAx twilight, dawn, dusk ra Re 7 arar.t uraeus rk-rk «serpent» Ax.t uraeus; diadem ar puddle, pond ra "canal" (Budge, 416a) Ax "flood season" w.ax water in Hades m.aa water [Wb II S 25] ra.t the feminine aspect of Ra Ax.t Hathor cow. 8 ar.t a decan AxAx stars ar mount up, ascend, extend, penetrate, lead, carry away, come on, approach m.aa out lead, guide, direct, send, dispatch, throw a wooden rod, stick, shaft, pole x.t wood, timber, tree, woodland, mast, stick, pole 9 To further demonstrate the correspondence of r and A in cikam, we can take a closer look at the word maa.t, which we know by now is a m- -k.t or m- -h.t consonant series. ciluba-bantu informs us that the root is -A- and corresponds to ciluba -lelèlà truth, authentic, veritable. However, it survives in cikam as rrj truly, really. The following table shows us the reality of this term. Table 5: Correspondences of MAa.t in African languages. M-E rrj really, truly. ciluba -lelèlà (-lelèlè(à)) truth, authentic, veritable kikongo -aludi real, true [l+i>di] Setswana rúrì "truly" Yoruba òdodo, òtít "truth, fact, justice, equality, right, righteousness M-E maa.t truth, justice, harmony, balance ciluba ma-lelela reality, truth ; bu-lelèlà reality, truth ; cyè-leke(a) truth, reality ; bi-lengele "well, correctly, distinctly, carefully, right, rightly." Basaa maèliga "truth" (m-l-g) nètïìïîk truth (m-l-g < n-t-k?) Zandé rɛng truth Somali run truth Kikongo nlungu "justification (the state of being just), justice, righteousness, blamelessness, completeness"; Kikongo lunga be accurate, right, be exact, perfect, etc., IsiZulu lunga "become right, good" utu-lunga accuracy 7 Here, Ra is depicted with the usual sun glyph, but the sun with a snake wrapped around it. See rk-rk «serpent». 8 Hathor is also a sun deity. 9 Put here to also show the a and x correspondences in cikam. Page 17 of 29

18 As noted in Imhotep (2013b, 2016), the m- in maa.t is a prefix and the -a and -t morphemes are suffixes to the root -A-. The -a corresponds with /k/ and /ng/ in Bantu. Karenga (2006: 6) posits that the etymology of maa.t, suggests an evolution from a physical concept of straightness, evenness, levelness, correctness, as the wedge-shaped glyph suggests, to a general concept of rightness, including the ontological and ethical sense of truth, justice, righteousness, order in a word, the rightness of things. We are further confirmed of the correspondence of A with liquids in the following table. Table 6: Language Lexeme Meaning Kikongo n.longa "line, row, file, a swarm of driver ants on the march, a troop, swarm, train of people filing along"; Kikuyu runga "straighten ciluba mu.longo(u) rank, row, line; series; many cikam (ra.t) m.aa.w right line [Wb 2, 23.8] PIE *reg "move in a straight line," also "to rule, to lead straight, to put right" (>English: right) Lastly, the A phoneme in cikam even corresponds to a liquid in Indo-European, which arose from Negro- Egyptian (see. Mboli 2010, Imhotep 2015). Table 7: 10 Indo-European Middle-Egyptian *bʰəl bright, white bax bright, light baq oily, bright, white, be dazzled (of sight) *bhala- log, beam bay (wooden) pegs brbr wood beam *leib- to pour, to wet bay / bajw moist, damp baba to pour forth * ʷelbʰ- uterus, womb qab intestine, gut, interior, middle *bʰər "carry" fay to carry, to lift gba arm *bʰəl to flower, blossom prx to unfold, to bloom, to open up flower, bloom pr.w motion, procession (of sun, stars), (child)birth, outcome, result 10 The PIE correspondences are from the TOB database. Table from Imhotep (2015: 39-40). Page 18 of 29

19 *bhaln-/-e- penis, vulva, anus bah phallus, glands, urethra nfr penis *leip- to demand, to wish Abj to wish for; to covet [ Wb 1, ] *bʰā 'ʰ arm gb arm *b h erw-, *b h rew- to boil, to seethe Abx to burn; to cook [ONB 244, Anm. 1062] Afr to boil, to cook *leub h - to love Ab.w to desire, wish for, to love, to long for, to covet Conclusion I hope that I have satisfactorily demonstrated that the G1 grapheme transliterated as A in cikam (Egyptian) is indeed 1) a consonant, and 2) a liquid (for Mboli the nasalized uvular trill / /). The data is overwhelming and I think the case has been made. I look forward to your feedback and critiques. Below is an appendix dealing with the sounds of ciluba (taken from Imhotep 2013). Page 19 of 29

20 Appendix A: The Sounds of Cilubà Family: Niger-Congo Subfamily > Benue-Congo Genus > Bantoid Tshiluba is a member of the Bantu language family spoken by about six million people in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where it is one of the national languages along with Lingála, Kiswahili and Kikongo. It is spoken mainly in Western and Eastern Kasai. Other names for the language include Cilubà, Luba, Luba-Kasai and Luba-Lulua. The official language of the DRC is French. Recent population statistics are not available, but it is generally accepted that there are at least six million speakers of Cilubà. In Guthrie's classification of the Bantu languages, the Lubà language is labeled as the 1st language of the 3rd group of zone L, thus L31 (Guthrie 1948: 54). In addition, Guthrie distinguishes between three dialects: L31a, L31b and L31c (see map below). Geographic distribution The geographical areas where Cilubà is spoken can tentatively be pinpointed as shown in the map below, taken from De Schryver (1999: 11). The following is an adaptation of notes from Dr. Ngo Semzara Kabuta on the ciluba language (originally written in French). Introduction Page 20 of 29

21 There are three categories of sounds: 5 vowels, 2 glides (or semi-vowels) and 18 consonants. Each vowel can be short or long and can carry a high, low, rising or falling tone. Furthermore, any vowel can be nasalized before a consonant. 1 Vowels: i, e, a, o, u. Each vowel can be short or long. It (the vowel) carries a high-tone (which is not represented in the spelling, since it is the most common), low-tone (represented by a low-pitched accent), rising-tone (represented by a circonflexe accent reversed) or descending (represented by a circonflexe accent). i : milice (militia) : micì arbres(trees) e : sel (salt) : kutèèla citer (quote) a : malade (sick) : kubala lire (read) o : épauler (shoulder) : mòna regarde (see) u : courant (current) : muntu personne (person) 1.2 In some contexts, the joining of two vowels (a, i) produces a new vowel, always long (ee): ma-ìsu > mêsu eyes ; ma-ìku > mêku families. 1.3 At a different vowel, i and u becomes y and w respectively: bi-anza > byanza hands ; u-àka-fùnd-a > wâkafùnda you wrote 1.4 i becomes e when preceded by e or o: ku-pòòl-il-a > kupòòlela pick + preposition ku-tel-il-a > kutelela sewing + preposition 1.5 u becomes o when preceded by o: kukòs-ulul-a> kukòsolola cut, splitting, carving 1.6 Has the form of the vowel that follows: bà-eel-a > bèèla putting ma-ìmpè > mîmpè good, beautiful [Egyptian nfr good, beautiful, perfect ] 2. Glides: y, w. y: yen: yaya big sister w: watt: wayi she /he has gone 3. Consonants : m, n, ny, ng, b, v, 1, d, z, j, p, f, t, s, sh, k, c m : m m n mo her n : n er den ny : o non on on ng : parking b : b re off e v: ven nd 1 : lo l Page 21 of 29

22 d : donner o ve (it is not clear, however, what is before i and after n) : dîsu oe l e e, bundù honte sh me z : zéro j : jurer p : has no equivalent in French. It is pronounced leaving a slight opening between the lips (unlike the French, they are totally against one another), so that the sound evokes the sound f. It can also be outright pronounced as an aspirated h. After m, it is pronounced as in French. f : f n r end t : o ll s :sel s l sh : ho x ho e k : q onq e n one c : match [these are still represented by tsh] 3.1 Followed by i, certain consonants change as follows (the infinitive in brackets): 1 + i> di: wǎlààdi (kulààla) she fell asleep n + i> nyi: wǎnyaanyì (kunyaana) she lost weight z + i> ji: wǎzaajì (kuzaaza) has crashed t + i> ci: wǎtuucì (kutuuta) she hit s + i> shi: wǎkòshi (kukòsa) she cut 3.2 Preceded by a nasal, two consonants change as follows: n + l> nd: ndòmbèlà (kulòmbela) asks for me /n - lòmb- ìl à/ moidemande-for the verb-final) m + p [Φ]> mp [p]: mpèèshà [mpèèshàj (kupèèsha [kuφèèsha]) gives me 3.3 l preceded by n, m or ny is pronounced n: kutùm-il-a > kutùmina send + préposition ; kukàn-il-a > kukànyina utter of menances + preposition 3.4 Given some suffixes (in general -il-), l or n preceded by a vowel different from i is dropped: 4. tones kusungul-il-a > kusungwila choose + preposition (choose for, by) kusumpakan-il-a > kusumpakeena worry + preposition Tones have a distinctive function as essential as that of consonants and vowels. It is therefore necessary to master the operation. Vowels may be pronounced in a registry high or low. Two different tones can be combined with rising tone (low-high, noted [ˇ] in the spelling) or falling tone (high + low, denoted [ˆ]). In the diagrams below, [/] is the rising tone and [\] the falling tone; points indicate the limits of syllables. mwêndù mujimà [ \. _... _ ] a fully [lit] lamp ; mwêndù mujìma [ \._.. _. ] a lamp [that has been] turned off Ndaayà [. _ ] (name of a woman) ; Ndààyà [. _ ] (name of a man) wǎyi [ /. ] he/she is gone ; wâyi [ \. ] you went away Intonation. In reality, the pitch of notes is relative. In general, we can say that in a statement, a second high tone is less than the previous high, and a second low tone, is lower than the previous. Thus, the following sentence: "Pangààkabàmbilà bwalu abu bààkasànka bikolè" [When I shared with them this Page 22 of 29

23 story, they were very pleased] pronounced approximately as the tonal scheme (a) in 12 levels and not according to the diagram (c) on two levels. In diagram (a), there is often neutralized low tones and successive highs, so that levels 10-11, 8-9, 6-7, 4-5 and 2-3 are often made about the same height, as in the diagram (b). Table 1: Sound interchanges in CiLuba-Bantu 11 n m np mp p f v r l d sh/š s z m b w b p h rn nl nd d f v pf m mb s z j p b d t t/č t 11 The following table taken from Mubabinge Bilolo: Tuleshi Kapya Ne Dyanga Mu CiKam: Mishi Ya CiKam Mu Cyena Ntu (2008). Page 23 of 29

24 Table 2: Verbal extensions in Tshilubà 12 Tshiluba extensions Definitions Reconstructed forms in Proto- Bantu -il- / -el- / -in- / -en- Applicative * -ID- -ish- / -esh- / -ij- / -ej- Causative * -I- / * -ICI- -angan- Reciprocal * -AN- -ibu- / -ebu- Passive * -U- / * -IBU- -ik- / -ek- Neutro-Passive * -IK- -ik- / -ek- Neutro-Active * -IK- -am- Stative * -AM- -ul- / -ol- / -un- / -on- Reversive * -UD- -ulul- / -olol- / -unun- / -onon- Repetitive * -UDUD- -akan- Extensive? -at- Contactive * -AT- Bantu Noun-Class Prefixes Bantu noun class systems can be roughly characterized in the following typological terms: First, noun classes tend to be realized as grammatical morphemes rather than independent lexical items. However, these grammatical morphemes were once independent words (Torrend 1891, Campbell-Dunn 2009a, 2009b). Second, they function as part of larger concordial agreement systems, where nominal modifiers, pronominals, and verbs are all morphologically marked with the same noun class (gender) feature. Lastely, although productive semantic classes have been reconstructed for Proto-Bantu, much of the semantics of current Bantu noun classes is no longer productive, and in some languages the number of classes has been morphologically reduced (we argue the same for ancient Egyptian). Nonetheless, noun class systems are grammatically productive in most Bantu languages, and semantically productive to some degree (Senft, 2000). Proto-Bantu Noun Class Meanings Noun Class Meanings 1/2 humans, other animates 1a/2a kinship terms, proper names 3/4 trees, plants, non-paired body parts, other inanimates 5/6 fruits, paired body parts, natural phenomena 6 liquid masses 7/8 manner, varied, diminutive 9/10 animals, inanimates 11 long thin objects, abstract nouns 12/13 diminutives 14 abstract nouns, mass nouns 15 infinitive 16,17,18 locatives (near, remote, inside) 19 diminutive 20/22 augmentive (diminutive) Another way of saying it is: 12 The following table is take from, Bantu verbal extensions: a cartographic approach by Gloria Cocchi in: V. Moscati & E. Servadio (eds.), Pro eed n s of he XXXV In on ro d Gr mm Gener v, CISCL Siena: STiL - Studies in Linguistics, Vol. 3 (2009): Page 24 of 29

25 Meanings of prefixes: 1. person 2. people 3. animate agent 4. plural of 3, 5 singular of 6, 6. paired things, multiples 7. custom, method, tool 8. pl of 7 9. animal 10 pl of One of many things 12 pl of 13 & small thing 14 abstraction 15. verb infinitive 16. on - Locative 17 outside - Locative 18 in - Locative 19. diminutive 20. pejorative 21. augmentative Table 3. Various Niger-Kordofanian Noun Class Systems 13 This table is taken from K. Demuth (2000). Bantu noun class systems: Loan word and acquisition evidence of productivity. In: G. Senft (Ed.), Classification Systems. Cambridge University Press. pp Page 25 of 29

26 Cilubà Noun-Class Prefixes Table 4: Cilubà noun-class system Milongo Mitù yà bibììkidilu Mitù yà bifìleedi, mifìdi nè mibadiki mu-/n-mù-, ø ba-/bà-, baa+ mu-/mùmi-/ mì-, N, ø di-/dìma-/ mà-, maa+ ci-/cì, cii+ bi-/bì-, bii+ lu-/lù ka-/kà-, kaa+ tu-/tù-, tuu+ bu-/bù-, buu+ kupa-/+ ku-/+ mu-/+ mubamumidimacibilukatubukupakumu- 1/2 : mulundà/balundà, mùmpêlà/baamùmpêlà, mààmù/baamààmù, Maweeja Nnangila 1/4 : ngomba/ngomba, nnyòka/nnyòka, nkwasa/nkwasa, sàtèlità/sàtèlità 3/4 : mucì/micì, mùpanù/mìpanù 5/6 : dikaaya/makaaya, dîsu/mêsu, dìkalù/màkalù, kaadìkalù 5/0 : dipaala, diibila, didyunda 0/6 : mashi, mabèèla, maluvu, mâyi, mashìka, mafi 6/6 : màshinyì/màshinyì, meetèlà/meetèlà, mèèsà/mèèsà 7/8 : cintu/bintu, ciidìkalu/biimàkalù 7/0 : citòòka, cifììka 8/8 : bidyà/bidyà, bìro/bìro 11/4 : luumù/nguumù, lungènyi/nngènyi, lumwènu/mmwènu 11/0 : luuyà, lûsù 12/13 : kantu/tungu, kaamàshinyì/tuumàshinyì, kàye/tùye 0/13 : tuminu, tuseku, tulù, tûmvi 14/6 : bùlokù/màlokù, bulundà/malundà, bwowa/mwowa 14/0 : buumùntù, busenjì, bukùnza 15/0 : kuseka, kumvwa, kwowa, kwenda 16/0 : pa mèèsà, pambèlu, pêku 17/0 : ku mèèsà, kumbèlu, kwîsu 18/0 : mu nzùbu, munda, mwitu Egyptian and Ciluba Sound Correspondences Page 26 of 29

27 Table 5: Basic Egyptian Signs and their Phonemes 14 Gardiner Sign Coda Symbol Description Proposed Sound Value ciluba Other possible vocalizations G1 vulture A a r/l M17 Reed leaf e/i/j i gi, bi, ci Double reeds e/y y g>y D36 Arm a a, e(n) ka, ba G43, Quail chick/ u/w u b, swa rope D58 Lower leg/foot b b p, k Q3 seat 15 p p b I9 Horned viper f f b G17 Owl/carpenter s m m b, p level N35, Water/white crown D21 mouth r l O4 courtyard h h, k n n m, mb; ng, nk > ny V28 Twisted flax H ng, nk, sh Aa1 sieve x ng, sh F32 Belly & udder X sh, nk, x h O34 Bolt/lock s/z s, sh, z t, j, k S29 Folded shawl s s, sh, z N37 Pool of water S sh N29 Hill slope q k, q V31 basket k k, g t W11 Jar stand or stool g g, ng, nk X1 Bread loaf t t d V13 Tethering rope T tsh, ci t D46 hand d d, t, ci I10 cobra D dj, nd d, j, k s 14 The column for ciluba comes from Bilolo (2011: 236). The Other possible vocalizations column comes from Imhotep (2012b). 15 Some argue that this is a sign for a mat. See p "mat" (as covering for furniture), (statue) base, throne". Page 27 of 29

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