Lecturing Module
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- Arline Diana Harper
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1 Lecturing: What, why and when Lecturing Module What is lecturing? Lecturing is the most common and established method of teaching at universities around the world. The traditional or classical characterization of the lecture is of approximately minutes of uninterrupted discourse by a professor or instructor from a fixed position at the front of a classroom or auditorium. During this period of time, student activity is typically limited to listening, note-taking, and possibly a few questions. Although this characterization of the lecture may be most prevalent, there are many methods and uses for lecturing which go beyond the traditional description. Over the course of its 2500-year history, lecturing has evolved by incorporating various teaching strategies such as discussion, problem-solving, case study, and demonstration. In general, lecturing as a form teaching has both advantages and disadvantages; several of which are outlined in Table 1 below. Table 1: Advantages and disadvantages of lecturing (e.g., Barbetta & Scaruppa, 1995; Bligh, 2002; Renner, 1999). Advantages Disadvantages Efficient and economical can be repeated from one semester to the next, reducing planning, preparation, and reviewing Versatile can be given to large or small groups, and varied in length Control instructor has total control of course content Timely instructor can present new, unpublished material Complements and clarifies difficult topics and readings can be addressed Flexible adjustments to content can be easily made Personalized content can be tailored to students interests and backgrounds Motivating instructor conveys his/her enthusiasm, helping to stimulate student interest Modelling instructor can serve as a role model Passive students are not required to actively participate which detracts from learning Limited feedback does not allow for immediate feedback on student learning; Fatigue student concentration may decrease as the lecture lengthens Lower-level learning few opportunities for higher-level learning such as analysis and synthesis Limited style -- students' varying learning paces, styles, and levels of understanding may not be considered Lack of instructor skills effectiveness is contingent upon the writing, speaking, and modelling skills of the instructor Lack of student skills students may not possess basic skills for note-taking and/or listening Poor organization and lack of focus may cause students difficulty in determining the most important aspects of the lecture Lecturing A facultydevelopment.ca Workshop 1
2 Why and when to use lecturing. In general, one can think of lecturing as serving three main purposes: to transmit information to students; to simulate interest among students; and to foster understanding among students. Although lecturing can serve to transmit information, stimulate interest and foster understanding, its appropriateness or inappropriateness as a method of instruction will depend on various factors, several of which are described below in Table 2. Table 2: Appropriate and inappropriate situations for using the lecture (e.g., Babin, 1986; Renner; 1999; McKeachie, 2002; Bligh, 2002) Lectures may be appropriate or suitable: when the primary educational goal is the dissemination of information; for disseminating information that is not readily available or accessible to the students; for providing students with current, up-to-date information; when presenting information that is conflicting or confusing in nature; for demonstrating how to approach a new topic/area and make sense of the related data; when material must be organized and presented in a specific way; for summarizing information taken from multiple sources; for adapting material to the background and interests of a particular group of students; for providing students with a framework or orientation so as to help them read effectively; when the best way to understand a topic is through oral presentation; when the experience of the speaker will contribute to clarification of the issues; for providing focus on key concepts, ideas, and/or principles; and when short-term retention of information is a teaching objective. Lectures may be inappropriate or unsuitable when: the primary educational goal is not the dissemination of information; the teaching objective is to change student attitudes, values or behaviours; student participation is essential for achieving the learning objective; the content is complex and/or abstract; trying to promote thinking; and long-term retention of the material is a teaching objective. Lecturing A facultydevelopment.ca Workshop 2
3 Preparing for the lecture i) Questions to ask yourself as you prepare the lecture. An important step in the preparatory process is to gather as much information as one can about the context of the lecture(s). In Table 3 you will find a list of general questions to keep in mind as you prepare your lecture(s). Table 3: Questions to guide lecture development Questions about the students. Who are my students? What can I assume my students know? What kind of misconceptions and/or assumptions might my students have about the subject? Is it possible to correct them? How can I accommodate student diversity? Will I need to motivate my students? Do I have any evidence for my assumptions about the students? Questions about organization and presentation How should the lecture be organized? How will I deliver the material? Can I incorporate a temporal structure? What about using some type of logical structure? How can I impart the structure to my students? Is there a natural order to the points I am presenting? How can the students be involved? If things do not proceed as expected, what can I leave out or add? How can the students be involved? Will I need to incorporate active-learning techniques? How does the lecture fit into the overall plan for the course? How does the lecture relate to previously covered material? Questions about your objectives. What are the major points that I wanted to get across in this lecture? What features, concepts, or key ideas should be presented? How can I best demonstrate the importance of the topic? What do I want the students to learn? If my students had to learn only one new idea or concept, what would it be? Can I relate the material to the students' experiences? Questions about content and materials How much can I contribute from my own experience? Will I need to clarify explanations? Will I need to provide analogies to relate new material to old material? Will I need to provide connections with previously covered material? Should I present statistics and research data? What about guest speakers? Do I need to include unpublished or new information? What concrete examples can I use to emphasize the major points? What examples can I include that draw on my students' experiences? What material will be needed? Do I need illustrations? Do I need any audio-visual equipment? Lecturing A facultydevelopment.ca Workshop 3
4 ii) Deciding on the structure and type of lecture. There are several ways in which one can organize one s lecture. However, Bligh (2000) suggests that there are two common forms of lecture organization hierarchical and chaining which are described below in Table 4. Table 4: Forms of lecture organization (adapted from Bligh, 2000) Structure Description Advantages and Disadvantages Classical most common structure points of information are grouped under a unifying heading Advantages easy to use focus on one thing at a time limit dramatic ability required easy to judge timing Hierarchical Problem-centred Lecturer asks a question and then presents information, arguments, and hypotheses as solutions Disadvantages May promote rigid thinking Can be boring Advantages Promotes thinking Stimulates interest Disadvantages Requires dramatic skill Skill in timing Assumes students have previous knowledge and ability Most difficult to give and follow Chaining consists of a sequence or chain of events similar to storytelling Advantages natural form of explanation helps to maintain student attention Disadvantages can be difficult to follow if the material not linked correctly Note: Bligh also describes several variations and more complex lecture structures such as comparison, thesis, logical dichotomy, and network Refer to Bligh (2000) for a complete description. Lecturing A facultydevelopment.ca Workshop 4
5 In addition to organizational format of a lecture, lectures can also be categorized into various types. Several types of lecture are described in Table 5. Table 5: Types of lectures (adapted from Bonwell & Eison, Also see Davis, 1993) Type of Lecture Description Expository Feedback Guided Responsive Demonstration Pause Procedure Think and Write most common and traditional lecture hierarchical structure of major and minor points allows instructor to efficiently present broad concepts and facts can be quite passive as a teaching method consists of two mini-lectures approximately 20 minutes in length mini-lectures are separated by a small-group study session during the small-group session students answer a discussion question related to the lecture material Note: This method is built on a study guide that contains assigned readings, learning objectives, and lecture notes. students are given the objectives of the lecture students are asked to listen carefully to a lecture (20 to 30 minutes) after the lecture students are asked to take 5 minutes to recall and record as much of the lecture as possible students then form groups and attempt to reconstruct the concepts and facts presented in the lecture students then ask questions to fill in and expand on missing information one period per week the instructor answers open-ended questions relating to the material covered during the week students must explain why they consider their question important the class ranks the questions in terms of interest and instructor lectures on as many questions as possible instructor lectures about major concepts and facts instructor periodically stops for demonstrations questions are asked by the instructor in order to encourage the students to suggest the next steps in the demonstration instructor lectures about key concepts and facts instructor periodically pauses (approximately every 10 minutes) pairs of students share notes so as correct and add any missing information from their notes instructor plans to ask key questions at points in the lecture instructor lectures about major concepts and facts instructor asks a question and pauses for the students to write their answers instructor calls on students to give their answers Lecturing A facultydevelopment.ca Workshop 5
6 iii) Lecture notes Very few instructors can deliver a lecture without some form of notes, and as such, you will most likely find that you will be lecturing with the aid of lecture notes. Lecture notes vary as to amount of information they contain, the extent to which they are structured, and their general formatting style (e.g., Day, 1980). Trying to determine which form is the best is a difficult question because the answer is dependent upon the each instructor. However, in general, we can identify three basic forms of lecture notes, which are described in Table 6 below. Table 6: Basic forms of lecture notes Form Verbatim Outline Non-linguistics Description instructor relies on a verbatim script of the entire lecture common among first-time lectures may increase instructor confidence because it reduces the number of things the instructor has to think about while lecturing can cause lecturer to read rather than talk may reduce interaction with students because the instructor is focused on the notes instructor relies on highlights of content in simple phrases or words increases the instructor s focus on the concepts and ideas rather than on following the notes can cause the instructor to fumble if he/she is not comfortable in front of a class may cause instructor to fail at making clear the connections between concepts instructor uses tree diagrams, charts, concepts maps, and/or pictorials as a guide can cause the instructor to fumble if he/she is not comfortable in front of a class may cause instructor to fail at making clear the connections between concepts The following are some general tips for preparing your lecture notes (refer to Davis, 1993; McKeachie 2002). segment the lecture in time bocks of minutes try to experiment with different forms of notes such as outline or non-linguistic employ techniques that will assist you in the delivery of the lecture such as colour codes or signposts that indicate transitions, key concepts, conceptual links, etc. use straightforward sentence structures use short, simple words and informal diction include some questions for students prepare your notes very carefully rehearse, rehearse, rehearse Lecturing A facultydevelopment.ca Workshop 6
7 Delivering the lecture i) The opening. One of the aims of the lecture opening is to hook the students by grabbing their attention and interest. In addition to creating interest, a good lecture opening will focus the attention of your students on the important aspects of the material, as well as help them determine what they are supposed to take away from the lecture. Below, in Table 7, you will find some tips for creating an effective opening to your lecture. Table 7: Tips for opening the lecture (e.g., Davis, 1993; McKeachie, 2002) Try to avoid a cold start Try to reduce nervousness Hook the students Overview Define Go to the class a few minutes early and mingle with the students. When mingling, use an informal tone when talking as this will help keep your lecture in a conversational tone. Mingling with the students will also let you establish rapport. Mingling for a few minutes may also help alleviate any butterflies you may be experiencing. Try taking some deep breaths (see, Tips for dealing with nervousness). Design an opening that points to a gap in the students knowledge. Arouse curiosity by raising a question about something that might be in the students minds. In addition to a question, you could start with a quotation, analogy, anecdote, etc.. Give the students a brief overview of the lecture either verbally or by providing a handout. Tell the students the objectives of the lecture. Let the students know how they are to use the lecture material. Use the opening as an opportunity to define unfamiliar terminology. ii) The body. One of the most important points to keep in mind when designing the body of your lecture is not to include too much material. Although you may feel compelled to include every fact and nuance, try to focus on the major points and concepts you want to cover. By including too much detail, you risk overwhelming your students with information which, in turn, may cause them to lose sight of the major concepts you want them to take away and/or to tune out of the lecture. To assist you in designing the body of a lecture, several tips are presented in the following table. Lecturing A facultydevelopment.ca Workshop 7
8 Table 8: Tips for designing the body of a lecture. Be flexible Determine the key points or concepts Be organized Use summaries and transitions Check for understanding Use examples Prepare explanations Chunk Factor in time to ask for and address questions or comments from the students. Focus on a few major points or concepts rather than trying to include every detail The lecture should be organized in a logical order (see, Deciding on the structure and type of lecture.). Allow time to summarize key ideas. Repeat the main points. Provide transitions which link concepts. Ask students to answer specific questions. Ask students for questions. Watch for nonverbal cues that may signal confusion. Present a problem that requires the use of the lecture material. Provide examples that link the material to the students experience. Use more than one example to illustrate a concept. Allow the students to generate examples. Keep in mind what the students know. Think about what they need to know. Provide interesting explanations. Break the lecture into minute segments. Chunking the lecture will allow students time to catch up, ask questions, re-focus, etc. iii) The closing. When designing your lecture it is important that you allow enough time to close the lecture. Closing the lecture will give you an opportunity to: fill in any gaps you may have missed; present a concluding summary; and ask or respond to any final questions. There are several points to keep in mind when closing your lecture: connect the main concepts and ideas; restate what has been learned with some new examples; answer new questions and/or questions that arose during the lecture; tie up any loose ends; preview the next lecture; and finish the lecture with a question, quotation, analogy, or story something to provoke thinking and foreshadow the next lecture. Lecturing A facultydevelopment.ca Workshop 8
9 Improving your lecturing i) Tips for improving the delivery of the lecture. Vary the opening of your lectures. Experiment with different structures and types of lectures. Maintain eye contact with the students. Speak clearly and with volume. Vary the pace of your speaking and the tone of your voice. Incorporate gestures to hold student attention and to emphasize main points. Be enthusiastic about the material. Break the lecture into segments of minutes. Let the students know the outline of the lecture and where it is headed. Use pauses to highlight points and gain the attention of the students. Provide the students with outlines and/or summaries of the lecture. Use visual supports such as transparencies, slides, charts, demonstrations, etc. Incorporate active-learning strategies. Record and/or video the lecture so that you or someone else can review the lecture. Have fun, introduce humour, and do not be afraid to laugh at your own mistakes. ii) Tips for overcoming nervousness be prepared practice and/or visualize concentrate on the ideas make a strong start use audiovisual aids or multimedia assume a confident attitude bring something familiar to the lecture wear clothing in which you feel comfortable and confident if you get dry mouth, make sure to bring something to drink do a classroom reconnaissance if your hands shake, keep them clasped together or hold a clipboard or hold on to the lectern if your voice trembles, take some deep breaths and try to speak in a lower tone if you suddenly forget what you were about to say or you forget your position, glance at your notes or ask a question if you do make a mistake, remember that you probably notice your errors more than your students talk to others who have already taught the course realize that some nervousness may be inevitable Lecturing A facultydevelopment.ca Workshop 9
10 Sample Lecture - Chaining Structure Objectives Learners will: Provide examples of opening hooks and explain why they are effective Define and identify 3 goals of a flexible lecturing style involving Think and Write I. Opening A. Deliver the following mini-lecture to gain attention 1. Introduction a. Reveal the term Opening Hooks on a previously prepared sheet. 2. Body a. Definition 1) Ask: What does the term mean? 2) Wait for answers 3) Provide definition a) Attention-getting devices to introduce a lesson with drama b) Meant to build on, reinforce, elaborate, supplement learner responses b. Examples 1) What are some examples you have seen? 2) Provide examples a) Teacher fumbling at beginning of class, music playing 3) Compile examples 4) Ask: What are the benefits? 5) Ask: Who has used such hooks? 6) Elicit examples from previous users? 7) Show how the opening hook was related to the lesson c. Think and Write 1) Ask: Select two lectures you need to deliver this semester. What opening hooks could you use for them? 2) Give learners 2 minutes to write answers 3) Ask for 3-5 examples from group. 3. Conclusion a. Summarize by restating 1) Definition 2) Examples 3) Advantages/limitations b. Discussion c. State the learners have just seen an example of a flexible style of lecturing involving Think and Write. Lecturing A facultydevelopment.ca Workshop 10
11 II. Body A. Disadvantages of formal lectures 1. Compile a list of limitations a. Passive, resentful, boring B. Flexible Style of Lecturing involving Think and Write 1. State definition Instructor plans to ask key questions at points in the lecture Instructor lectures about major concepts and facts Instructor asks a question and pauses for the students to write their answers Instructor calls on students to give their answers 2. Three Purposes Analyze targeted concept Involve participants Involve instructor s expertise 3. Explain why flexible lecture style/ Think and Write is appropriate to use with students 4. Check for understanding a. Ask question b. Elicit many answers c. Supplement, reinforce, expand on answers 5. Review how you did this with the Opening Hooks segment a. Recall specifics 6. Think and Write a.. Ask: Select one lecture you need to deliver this semester. How would you incorporate Think and Write in that lecture? b. Give learners 2 minutes to write answers c. Ask for 3-5 examples from group. III. Closing A. Summarize 1. Definition of Think and Write 2. Restate advantages 3. State that learners have just experienced 2 examples of Think and Write. Lecturing A facultydevelopment.ca Workshop 11
12 Lecturing A facultydevelopment.ca Workshop 12
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