Explanatory Essay for. The English for Academic Purposes (ESLA 1300) Syllabus

Transcription

1 Explanatory Essay for The English for Academic Purposes (ESLA 1300) Syllabus By Jason Parry, 2012

2 Contents OVERVIEW OF THE COURSE 3 Critical Thinking 4 Subjective Teaching 4 Classroom discussion 5 NEEDS ANALYSIS 7 NECESSITIES 7 WANTS AND LACKS 8 Student Perceptions 8 Faculty Perceptions 8 COURSE CONTENT 9 THEMATIC UNIT ASSIGNMENTS 9 Theoretical Support for a Theme Based CBI course in ESLA The Use of Short Stories in a Theme Based CBI Course 12 EXTENSIVE READING AND WRITING ASSIGNMENT 15 Extensive Reading 16 The benefits of an extensive reading program 17 The characteristics of a successful extensive reading program 18 Journal Writing and Online Blog 19 Writing to Learn 19 Rationale for approach to journal feedback and student self correction 20 Rationale for Online Blogging 23 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT PORTFOLIO 23 Library Workshop Attendance and Discipline Specific Bibliography 24 Grammar Assignment 25 ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION 26 NOTES ABOUT SYLLABUS STRUCTURE 28 REFERENCES 30 2

3 Overview of the Course The students in an ESLA 1300 class are international students, who do not speak English as a first language, and who have arrived in Canada for the purpose of university level study. They have been partially accepted to university under the condition that they first complete the ESLA course before they can achieve full admission. This is a result of a below standard grade on a language proficiency test, which was taken as a part of the university application process (Fox, Cheng, Berman, Song, & Myles, 2006, p.87). ESLA 1300 is the lowest level for language instruction offered at Carleton, and can be completed in one semester. The entire ESLA course consists of ESLA 1300, 1500, and 1900, can be completed in three semesters, and counts as one credit towards the students degrees. These students may also be allowed to take one other content course while taking the ESLA 1300course, but will only receive credit for this content course if and when the ESLA course is successfully completed (Carleton University). For students who speak English as their second language (L2), learning to use English for Academic Purposes (EAP) can be a trying and overwhelming experience. Having landed in an English speaking country for their first time, these students may feel helpless and isolated as they attempt to navigate through the unknown local culture and understand the countries social norms. Simultaneously, they may need to cope with high expectations and pressure from their family overseas, all while dealing with a heavy academic workload and a lack of scholarly background in their chosen specialization (Fox, et al., 2006). To meet the needs of these students (for needs analysis, see below), this course has been designed with the following principles in mind: 3

4 1. Critical Thinking According to Bloom s taxonomy of educational objectives (1956), cognitive skills can be represented by six separate levels. The first three levels; knowledge, comprehension and application, involve remembering and organization, whereas the final three levels; analysis, or synthesis and evaluation, involve higher level thinking. In order for students to develop their ability to think critically, they must move beyond the first three levels of Bloom s taxonomy. While facts have a relatively short shelf life, the ability to think critically allows learners to creatively intersect their knowledge with logical thinking to reach new levels of understanding. By processing information at a deeper level, students are able to retain what they have learned more successfully. This can be accomplished by enriching classes with active learning techniques, such as written assignments, discussion, and involvement in research (Davis & Buskist, 2006). This ESLA 1300 course will be infused with a variety of active learning activities, such as the extensive reading and writing assignment, thematic units, and grammar presentations (see below). 2. Subjective Teaching According to Palmer, the root meaning of objective is to put against, to oppose. This is the danger of objectivism: it is a way of knowing that places us in an adversarial relation to the world Indeed objectivism has put us in an adversarial relation to one another (Palmer, as cited in Hooks, 2003, p. 128). When we teach objectively we view our students as blank slates, and dissociate ourselves from them by pretending they lack opinions, thoughts, or personal problems. We create barriers between ourselves and our learners, in the pursuit of purely empirical knowledge. Hooks (2003) warns us of the dehumanizing effect of teaching objectively. By teaching objectively, we inhibit communal learning and promote competition. 4

5 Instead, he suggests a subjective approach to teaching, where teachers empathize and care about the fate of students both in the classroom and beyond (Hooks, 2003, p. 130). In teaching subjectively, teachers seek to connect with students, attempt to reduce the differences created by power, and regard truth as emerging from a complex process of mutual inquiry (Palmer, 1998, 51). This empowers students, giving them space for learning and growth. This approach is evident throughout this course, especially in the thematic unit assignments (see below). 3. Classroom discussion One way to teach more subjectively is by promoting classroom discussion. As Finkel (2000) describes it, classroom discussion does not entail the blind leading the blind, but the curious seeking to make discoveries (p. 37). Through classroom discussion, the right answer lies in the minds of the students, and not with the instructor. The job of the instructor is transformed from expert to facilitator. Brookfield and Preskill (1999) assert that a classroom rich with classroom discussion can be extremely valuable for students. Among these benefits, the authors list intellectual agility, deeper connection to a topic, and increased empathy. Moreover, they claim that classroom discussion can develop the ability to synthesize and find links between unconnected pieces of information (p. 292). Furthermore, studies demonstrate that language students find classroom discussion and collaborative learning as beneficial (Fox, et al., 2006). Brookfield and Preskill warn however, that these benefits only appear when the students strive to gain as much as they can from the lesson (1999, p. 292). 5

6 Teachers can encourage that students get the most from classroom discussion by making their expectations clear from the outset of the course, setting ground rules for discussion, modelling participation, and having a well-integrated reward system (Brookfield & Preskill, 1999). The thematic unit assignments (see below) in this course are designed with plenty of opportunities for group discussion, and collaborative work. Students will work together to discover knowledge about themselves and to achieve deeper understanding of the course content. In doing this, they will also simultaneously improve their language proficiency (see below). A well-integrated reward system has also been built into this course, as students will receive a grade for participation. Moreover, many classroom discussions will provide scaffolding for subsequent written assignments, which will also be graded. 6

7 Needs Analysis In order to accurately meet the learning needs of our students when devising a syllabus, we must first complete a needs analysis. In the field of language teaching, this can be described as the process of determining the needs for which a learner or group of learners requires a language and arranging the needs according to priorities [it] makes use of both subjective and objective information (Richards et al. 1992, as cited in Jordan, 1997, p. 20). According to Hutchinson and Waters, a needs analysis should consider target needs. Target needs describe what will be required of the learner in the target situation, and can be further separated into necessities (what the learner must know in order to function effectively in the target situation), lacks (necessities the learner lacks) and wants (what the learners want or perceive that they will need in the target situation). Lacks are often referred to as objective needs, whereas wants are referred to as subjective needs. In the interest of motivation, a balance of each should be considered when designing a syllabus. By addressing wants and lacks in a syllabus design, the instructor can determine the most effective strategy for bridging the gap between the learners lacks and wants, and the learners necessities (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987, as cited in Benesch, 2001, p. 40). Necessities In order to cope in an academic, setting where the language of instruction is English, students must be proficient in using a variety of skills. To be successful students in their second language (L2), they must be proficient in academic writing, critical reading, listening and speaking during lectures, note-taking and exam preparation. They must also have a strong command of an extensive vocabulary, and knowledge of vocabulary specific to their academic 7

8 interests (Kasper, 2000, p.78-87). Simultaneously, they must also struggle to acculturate to life in a university setting overseas (Fox, et al., 2006, p.17) Wants and Lacks Student Perceptions According to a recent survey in Canada involving 53 L2 undergraduate students, and 60 L2 graduate students, the most troublesome language skills for non-native speaking (NNS) students were speaking in an academic setting and writing (Fox, et al., p. 14). These results are similar to a previous survey conducted at Cambridge University, where students reported that speaking during lectures, writing, and note-taking during lectures were the most difficult (Jordan, 1997, p. 44). Faculty Perceptions In faculty surveys, some differing viewpoints regarding L2 student needs have arisen. Using case studies and interview data, Trice (2001) gathered information from four university departments in regard to their attitudes toward NNS international graduate students. Similar to student perceptions, faculty also listed writing and speaking as major obstacles which must be overcome. Furthermore, faculty pointed out that in many cases, poor speaking ability led L2 students to associate almost exclusively with their own ethnic and linguistic group outside of class (Fox et al. p. 12). According to the researcher, this actually caused L2 students speaking abilities to deteriorate as they moved forward in their studies. The above results indicate that while targeting the four skills for an academic setting is important, facilitating the acculturation process and training social skills is also crucial to the success of an EAP program. 8

9 Course Content The following coursework and assignments have been designed to meet the aforementioned target needs, by training the various skills that faculty and L2 students have identified as necessary for L2 academic success. Thematic Unit Assignments Throughout the semester, the students will study two thematic topics, each lasting about half of the term. These themed units will be based on readings, audio, and video from a variety of sources. The first unit will draw heavily on content from contemporary short stories, whereas the following unit will have a stronger academic focus. The units will serve as a springboard to a variety of in class tasks and activities such as main point reports, listening and note-taking activities, paraphrasing, summaries, essays, short answers and quizzes. All evaluated unit assignments will be completed in class, and each thematic unit will culminate with an in class evaluation, which encompasses all of the content which preceded it. This approach to Academic English study is in response to the previous needs analysis, as well as research findings which suggest that generic ESL and EFL courses are unable to fulfill the needs of EAP students (Krashen, as cited in Bell, 1996). In this, the above approach has been developed to bridge the gap between ESL or EFL and using English in an academic setting. Known as content-based instruction (CBI), the popularity of this method for preparing L2 students for academic English has grown considerably in recent years (Snow, 1998, 243). According to Pally (1997), the central belief of CBI is that by using the target language to learn information over a continued period, the students will acquire the language while simultaneously advancing their knowledge of the content. Instead of explicitly teaching language 9

10 items (like in many ESL and EFL courses), motivating the students to interact with authentic, contextualised, linguistically challenging materials in a communicative and academic context (Kasper, 2000, p.4) allows them to benefit from improved language proficiency as they acquire information in their L2. Relevant and engaging content - as opposed to language - is the focus of the course and improved language ability is the product (Brinton, Snow & Wesche, 1989, p. 2-14). Furthermore, Pally asserts that when students are involved in gathering this information, synthesizing it, and finally evaluating it, they must think critically, ultimately strengthening their language skills (Pally, 1997). Due to a lack of student enrolment from a specific disciple at Carleton, a theme-based model of CBI has been used for this ESLA 1300 course. This is the most popular model, as with this approach a course can be offered in nearly any academic setting (Brinton, et al., 1989). Since the students are from a variety of academic disciplines, the content of the course is chosen for general appeal across a wide range of academic interests (e.g. biology, sociology, ecology, psychology, etc.) and the focus is on the development of generic academic skills and strategies such as effective note taking, scanning or skimming, writing summaries, etc. (Fox, et al., 2006, p. 9). Theoretical Support for a Theme Based CBI course in ESLA 1300 In any mainstream university course, the ability to think critically is necessary for a student s academic success. At various points throughout their program, students may be required to discuss an issue, raise questions, determine the value of contradictory viewpoints, organise, and synthesize information which they have gathered from a variety of sources, and produce texts reflecting their views. 10

11 A content-based program which gives its students plenty of opportunities to accrue, evaluate, and synthesize information across a variety of disciplines and through differing genres of discourse, can support these mainstream courses in many ways. Firstly, this will allow students to practice and refine the critical thinking skills, which they will require to be successful outside of the EAP program. Taking the learners eventual use of the language into account, the CBI course gives them many opportunities for practice within an academic context (Pally, 1997). Secondly, since the students are practicing skills which they perceive as relevant to their academic careers, their acquisition of the target language is also facilitated by increased motivation (Song, 2001). Moreover, providing the learners with sustained content over time lends itself well to the theory of scaffolding. As students are repeatedly exposed to a common theme using a variety of different types of discourse, they can use their experiences from previous lessons to build up to tasks which are incrementally more challenging. Then, as they become more proficient using the skills that they have learned, they can gradually begin to explore the topics in a more autonomous and less structured manner (Kasper, 2000, p. 6). Finally, using content as a medium for language learning allows students to learn the L2 based on contextualized, rather than sentence level use. In this, students are able to benefit from awareness of the discourse level features and the social interaction patterns which are essential to effective language use, as well as of the correct grammatical conventions (Brinton, et al., 1989, p.3). According to Krashen, input must be meaningful and understood by the learner, while also introducing new language items to be acquired. Through CBI, students are able to 11

12 intersect their experiential knowledge and expectations about the subject matter with their imperfect knowledge of the target language, in order to comprehend and implicitly acquire the language features being presented (Brinton, et al., 1989). The Use of Short Stories in a Theme Based CBI Course As previously mentioned, using authentic materials for language input is vital to the successful implementation of any CBI course (Kasper, 2000, p. 4). When compared to materials designed specifically for language training, many of the benefits of using authentic materials come to light. Since authentic materials have been created to fulfill a real social purpose outside the classroom, L2 students who are exposed to them learn real information about the language community which they are training to become a part of. This information is often missing from inauthentic materials. In materials designed for the classroom, sentences are always perfectly formed and questions are always grammatically complete and receive unexpectedly grammatically complete answers. Structures are overused with the intent of teaching specific language items, resulting in awkward and linguistically deprived text (Berardo, 2006, p. 62). Using authentic texts ensures exposure to a variety in linguistic structures and lexicon, creating more opportunities for incidental language learning. Furthermore, the process of distinguishing the meaning of real texts in a student s L2 is extremely motivating. By empowering learners with the knowledge that they can grasp authentic L2 texts, teachers can encourage their students to read for pleasure outside the classroom. This opens the floodgates to a limitless supply of input for the students (Berardo, 2006). Of course, choosing to expose EAP students to authentic materials does not necessarily imply that those materials must short stories, or even fiction for that matter. In actuality, the 12

13 majority of CBI courses exclusively use academic, discipline specific non-fiction (see Kasper, 1995, for an overview of the benefits of using discipline specific texts). In an ESLA 1300 course, however, students are still struggling to improve their general English skills. By introducing students to a content-based course using short stories, teachers can ease their students transition from ESL or EFL to EAP. For lower level ESL students, short stories can be used as a genre which is more familiar than academic content, while still exposing them to authentic texts written for a native speaking audience. When they are ultimately introduced to academic content, they will be more engaged and ready to participate in the learning process (Kasper, 2000, p.108). Apart from their ability to aid L2 learners in their transition to university, using short stories in the classroom provides a great deal of other benefits for students: Short stories improve performance across the four skills A great deal of research has been completed to determine the efficacy of using literature over non-fiction in second language teaching. These studies confirm that literature is beneficial to listening, reading comprehension and speed, writing, vocabulary, examination performance, and attitudes to reading in the target language (Macalister, 2008, p. 248). Short stories increase motivation Literary texts are suitable because language is learned by human beings, and an interest and love of literature for its various qualities is a human characteristic (Paran, p. 469, 2008), a common denominator in a way in which cannot be paralleled by other forms of text. Unlike academic literature, short stories have a beginning middle and end, which encourage students to continue reading them through to the conclusion (Erkaya, 2005). 13

14 Short stories promote critical thinking As students respond to stories and analyze their impressions, they see how their information was filtered through a point of view and limited by it they begin to see how their own experiences, cultures, or values affect their views (Oster, 1989, as cited in Belcher and Hirvela, 2000, p. 29). Through the lens of the characters in the stories, students can uncover their own assumptions and feelings surrounding the subject matter. Since short stories follow a narrative, issues for critical thinking are put in an easily remembered context (Erkaya, 2005). Short stories introduce learners to the target language s culture Embedded within short stories is the culture of the writer and the characters which are being written about. While improving their language skills, students are simultaneously learning to appreciate a new culture, and to understand and respect people s differences (Erakaya, 2005, p. 8). Short stories improve writing ability Students in entry level ESLA courses are still struggling with their general writing skills; let alone the writing styles of their discipline. In this, these students need to acquire an understanding of broader university-wide discourse expectations as well as a deeper understanding of the target language and culture (Hirvela, 1998, p. 322, as cited in Belcher and Hirvela, 2000, p. 29). Academic discourse varies dramatically from one discipline to another and in some fields narrative structures may even appear (qualitatively based texts, reflection or response papers). In these cases students may need a whole array of rhetorical resources not easily obtained by reading and writing only information based texts. 14

15 Short stories expose students to a variety of discourse styles which they may need to read and write in the course of their academic studies. This is achieved since literature enhances learners discourse community competence because it exposes them to narrative forms of discourse and aesthetic, as opposed to strictly information-based, reading and writing (Belcher and Hirvela, 2000, p. 29). Short stories act as a bridge to higher level thinking Exposure to literature over non-fiction can also function as a window to critical thinking. Stories are more accessible than academic content and open to analysis. L2 learners can compare what they have read with their own experiences, empathise with the characters, and think critically about what they have read. Since literature is entertaining, reading short stories can lower affective filters, demonstrating that critical thinking is natural, familiar and sometimes even fun (Erakaya, 2005, p. 8-9). Extensive Reading and Writing Assignment Given the previously listed benefits of using literature as a genre for input in the classroom, a second literature intensive activity will be undertaken during this course. For a half hour at the beginning of each class, for a total of eight weeks, the students will read from a novel they have selected from the library. Immediately after this extensive reading period, they will respond to a prompt in a writing journal. This will amount to 16 extensive reading periods, and sixteen journal entries. The journal prompts will promote deeper interaction with the students chosen text, as well as critical thinking and introspection. Each journal entry will be submitted to the teacher or TA, and suggestions will be made for improvement (grammar, spelling, cohesion and content). Language errors will be underlined 15

16 and suggestions for improvement will be written around the written text, but no corrections will be made to the writing. Simultaneously, the students will be asked to create an online blog. Using their journals and the teacher or TA feedback that they have received, they will rewrite five of their submissions for a public audience online. Here they will be asked to focus on form and meaning, and be graded accordingly. The benefits of these three stages are listed below. Extensive Reading Extensive reading (ER) has been defined as the process of exposing learners to a large amount of input which is at their level of language proficiency. This can include graded readers, which simplify more complex texts by reducing their total number of headwords (Horst, 2005), or unsimplified texts for native speakers (Nation, 1997). In an extensive reading program, students are given time in class for reading, they are encouraged to read as often as they can, they are given the opportunity to choose which materials they will read, and allowed to read for pleasure without the pressure of being tested or receiving marks (Davis, 1995). The characteristics of a successful reading program will be discussed in further detail below. ER differs from intensive reading, which is often the focus of in class reading for the purpose of language instruction. Intensive reading activities usually require students to turn their attention to a short text, analysing it for meaning, use of vocabulary and grammar. In ER, on the other hand, the focus is on quantity over quality of reading, with texts chosen for their relevance to the learner and not for their literary merit. Both approaches are beneficial for learners and should not be viewed in opposition, as both serve different but complementary purposes 16

17 (Renandya & Jacobs, 2010, p. 296). In this course, a great deal of intensive reading will be completed in relation to the thematic unit assignments. The benefits of an extensive reading program Aside from improving reading comprehension, ER also promotes vocabulary growth, writing and speaking ability (Taguchi, 2004). Elley (1991, as cited in Nation, 1997, p. 14), attributes these benefits to the following factors: 1. Extensive input of meaningful print 2. Incidental learning 3. The integration of oral and written activity 4. Focus on meaning rather than form 5. High intrinsic motivation A large body of research supports extensive reading for the purpose of language instruction (For an extensive list of past studies, see Taguchi, 2004; & Horst, 2005). In a 20 month long study conducted by Elley & Mangubhai (1983), 380 students from eight Fijian schools demonstrated promising improvements in reading and listening comprehension after eight months of participation in an ER program. In comparison to a control group, their language skills had increased at twice the normal rate. One year after the ER program had been completed, post test results revealed that aside from improvements in their receptive abilities, these students had also made considerable gains in their writing ability. In another study focusing on vocabulary development, Horst (2005) investigated the impact of a six week long extensive reading program on 21 adult immigrants in Montreal. One hour of class time was devoted to ER activities each week, and the students were encouraged to read as much as possible in their free time. Results revealed a significant mean post-test increase of about seven words (p. 373). Concentrating on four students during an ER program in the United States, Cho and Krashen (1994) found significant increases in spoken ability. For several months, the participants were 17

18 asked to read for pleasure in their free time. In follow-up interviews, each of the participants reported improvements in their oral proficiency. Aside from language proficiency, ER programs also increase intrinsic motivation, promoting an increase in language study which is completed outside of class. This was evident in a study involving 10 L2 learners participating in an ER program during their first year of university in Japan. Taguchi (2004) noted that after a minimum of 733 minutes of reading, the students were more willing to read long passages, they had increased their exposure to literature outside of class, and they had learned to discern the meaning of unknown words from the context of a text. The characteristics of a successful extensive reading program According to the literature, in a successful ER program, teachers attempt to build a community of readers in and outside the classroom. The goal is to hook the learners on reading, creating a shift in their perception and consumption of target language literature. To accomplish this, students should be given the freedom to choose which texts they will consume, and they should be provided with high interest, quality literature to choose from. Moreover, the reading materials should vary in terms of their subject matter and genre of writing style. This allows for exposure to a rich diversity in input, and trains the students to read for a variety of purposes (Renandya & Jacobs, 2010). Finally, the texts should be within the students level of comprehension, meaning that the students are able to understand about 95% of the words in the novel (Horst, 2005, p. 361). Once the texts have been selected, quality ER programs engage the students in post reading activities, such as discussion groups or journal writing activities (both of which will be 18

19 present in this course). The teacher will read during the ER period as well, modelling enthusiasm for reading and sending a message that we value reading and that our students should do the same (Renandya & Jacobs, 2010, p. 297). Journal Writing and Online Blog Writing to Learn Both academically and professionally, during and after their creation, written texts have enormous pedagogical potential (Paré, 2009). By providing time for writing in the classroom, we as teachers demonstrate our commitment to writing as a tool for active learning (Roen & Lindblom, 1996, p. 314). In this ESLA 1300 course, journal writing will encourage closer engagement with the extensive reading texts, allowing the students to practice and use the language that they have encountered while reading (Roen & Lindblom, 1996). Paré (2009) outlines several aspects of written language which contribute to language acquisition: 1. Writing is a process and cannot simply appear in its completed form. It is created in phases, one letter at a time. 2. When learners put their words to paper, they slow down their thoughts and allow them to become organized and succinct. 3. Through writing, learners give insight to their fleeting ideas. They are able to explore and develop their understanding of what they are writing as their words take shape on the page. Furthermore, once a written text has been completed, the result of this process is a finished product. This can be read, reflected and acted upon. The products which are produced by our students can be utilized to demonstrate different forms of writing, and used to reflectively gain knowledge about the intrinsic and idiosyncratic nature of texts across different disciplines. 19

20 Writing also has social value and it causes, to varying degrees of success, actions, outcomes and results. By giving attention to these aspects of writing in the classroom; its heuristic ability, its process, its product and its social value, many new academic applications come to light. In this course, we harness the heuristic value of writing by prompting our students to explore their understanding of new concepts in a learning journal. Likewise, we can exploit the writing process by breaking it down into discrete phases, and giving students opportunities for reflection and interaction with others along the way. This helps to simulate writing done outside the classroom. In this course the writing process has already been separated into the drafting, peer review (done by teacher and TA), and final draft stages, however, it can be dissected even further by promoting brainstorming, discussion, and other writing related activities in class. There is also a great deal that can be learned about effective writing, by encouraging students to critically examine finished texts, and eliciting which elements make it successful or unsuccessful. Finally, and in my mind most importantly, a student can be motivated to produce texts that have social importance. Instead of creating arhetorical writings that end at the teacher s desk, students can be given assignments with purpose, which interact with the world outside the classroom (Paré, 2009). This will be accomplished through the online blog assignment. Rationale for approach to journal feedback and student self correction In the field of Applied Linguistics, there is a large amount of debate surrounding the best approach to language feedback. According to Truscott (1999), evidence suggests that despite explicit instruction of a language item, students are only able to acquire grammar in a somewhat 20

21 fixed order. Moreover, Truscott (2007) contends that error correction in writing can actually impede learning. He asserts that based on existing research: (a) the best estimate is that correction has a small negative effect on learners ability to write accurately, and (b) we can be 95% confident that if it has any actual benefits, they are very small (p. 256). That being said, many of Truscott s claims (1999 & 2007) have been discredited by Lyster, Lightbrown and Spada (1999) and Chandler (2009). Lyster, et al. (1999), argue that despite Truscott s claims that error correction is difficult, it should not be avoided. Instead, they assert that error correction is pragmatically feasible, potentially effective, and, in some cases, necessary (p. 457). The authors assert that error correction can be beneficial to students, especially when it is done without breaking the communicative flow of the classroom. Furthermore, they warn their readers that the effects of error correction are gradual, requiring patience from both the teacher and the students (Lyster, et al., 1999). According to Ellis, Basturkmen and Loewen (2002), a teacher can effectively correct errors by taking a reactive focus-on-form approach. This is a type of incidental focus-on-form, where attention is given to forms as they arise in the process of completing communicative tasks. This differs from first teaching the correct form of a language item, then requesting that students compose a text which exemplifies the learned form. For written errors, this can be achieved by underlining errors as they occur, and requiring the students to resubmit their writing with the corrections made. Then, if the error persists corrections can be made (Chandler, 2009). In our ESLA 1300 class, these resubmissions will be 21

22 in the form of a blog, and the final corrections will be made after the blog assignment has been completed. In a controlled study, Chandler found that by employing this strategy the group that did error correction improved significantly in accuracy on new writing by the end of the semester, whereas the group that did no error correction showed an insignificant decline in accuracy (Chandler, 2009, p. 57). By implementing a focus-on-form approach to error correction, Ellis, et al. (2002) contend that students will show improvements in spontaneous communication (such as in future journal submissions and in speaking). This will reduce errors and improve accuracy in future language use. Ellis et al. suggest that this is the result of the following premises: 1. To acquire the ability to use new linguistic forms communicatively, learners need the opportunity to engage in meaning-focused language use (see Prabhu, 1987). 2. However, such opportunity will only guarantee full acquisition of the new linguistic forms if learners also have the opportunity to attend to form while engaged in meaningfocused language use. Long (1991) argues that only in this way can attention to form be made compatible with the immutable processes that characterize L2 acquisition and thereby overcome persistent developmental errors. 3. Given that learners have a limited capacity to process the second language (L2) and have difficulty in simultaneously attending to meaning and form they will prioritize meaning over form when performing a communicative activity (VanPatten, 1990). 4. For this reason, it is necessary to find ways of drawing learners attention to form during a communicative activity. As Doughty (2001) notes the factor that distinguishes focus on form from other pedagogical approaches is the requirement that focus on form involves learners briefly and perhaps simultaneously attending to form, meaning and use during one cognitive event (p. 211). (Ellis et al., 2002, p. 422). 22

23 Rationale for Online Blogging As previously noted, there is no more satisfying task that can be given to an L2 student than the opportunity to produce writing in their second language, which will have a function and purpose beyond the classroom (Paré, 2009). The online blog assignment fulfills this social purpose; giving the students writing a life after a final grade has been assigned. Computer technology and the internet play a large role in our students lives, as well as in new approaches to education. For students learning to write in English, this medium can support literacy development, promote student centred learning, and foster enhanced metacognition of specific linguistic and research skills, as well as of the overall process of acquiring knowledge (Kasper, 2000, p. 184). In planning for incorporating internet use in the language classroom, Kasper warns that many students who arrive in an EAP classroom may have had limited access to the internet, and may experience extra difficulty when attempting to participate in online assignments. To overcome this, Kasper suggests providing step-by-step instructions for any activities completed online, as well as finding class time to attempt online activities in a computer lab (Kasper, 2000, p. 189). Language Development Portfolio The language development portfolio will require the completion of a number of worksheets and activities focused on the development of library, language and communication skills necessary for success in university. The students will attend three library workshops; one focusing on research skills, one focusing on note-taking during lectures, and one focusing one a topic chosen according to the students individual interests. In response to the first workshop, the 23

24 students will design a discipline specific bibliography. Using the note-taking skills which were learned in the second workshop, the students will record the information presented during the third workshop. Using this information, the students will be required to submit a blog entry about what they have learned (see above). Simultaneously, the students will also be developing their communication skills, by autonomously researching and improving a specific structural aspect of their writing. In week five, the teacher or TA will have identified a specific weakness in each students writing, which the students will independently need to research and improve upon. In week eleven, they will present their findings to group of their classmates. Library Workshop Attendance and Discipline Specific Bibliography One method of learning the integrated skills (reading, writing, listening, speaking) for an academic setting, is by engaging EAP students in the types of activities that they will encounter in their field of study. In order to do this effectively, Jordan (1997) suggests some principles which can be used when designing EAP appropriate activities. First, Jordan asserts that tasks which the students engage in must be perceived as relevant and meaningful to their specific purpose. In this case, learning research and note-taking skills as well as how to cite works within their discipline will be useful to the students throughout their academic careers. Furthermore, Jordan recommends controlling the level of difficulty of these tasks. This can be accomplished through plenty of scaffolding surrounding the library visits and prior to assignment submissions. Moreover, extra support can be provided for the discipline specific bibliography by providing examples of completed assignments, and directing students to resources which outline their disciplines citation styles (Jordan, 1997, p. 109). 24

25 Grammar Assignment According to Celce-Murcia and Olshtain (2000), teaching grammar at the sentence level with decontextualized and unrelated sentences... is not likely to produce any real learning (Celce-Murcia and Olshtain, 2000, p. 61). Instead, the authors contend that grammar must be taught in context, using discourse based forms. One method which can be used to teach grammar in context is to take an inductive-analytic approach. Instead of overtly teaching grammar, students can be asked to analyse examples from a text, developing explicit knowledge along the way. Ellis (2010) also asserts that grammar practice in a classroom cannot contribute to language proficiency, but he does make a case for consciousness-raising tasks. He contends that by explicitly raising the students awareness of an aspect of language, we can facilitate the acquisition process. This occurs because the learners are able to store the explicit knowledge until they are developmentally ready to acquire it. Although they are unable to immediately acquire the language item through consciousness raising activities, it may occur with a delayed effect (Ellis, 2010, ). In this course, the context for learning grammar will be the learners individual writing submissions. This allows the students to analyse the grammar at the discourse level, which is more meaningful and authentic. The final presentations of the students individual grammar points will also serve as a consciousness-raising task, making the acquisition process of the presented grammar items easier when the students are ready for them. 25

26 Assessment and Evaluation Throughout the course the students will be participating in a diverse range of activities. They will be concurrently studying language and theme specific content, allowing for the simultaneous development of their English proficiency while also learning subject matter. They will be training their integrated skills through meaningful listening, speaking, writing and reading, and working together to construct knowledge and develop concepts. In this, many of the activities presented in class will be informal and ungraded, with the intent to aid the learners in reflection about what they are learning (Smith, 2004). Since, however, the teacher must both facilitate learning and report what learning has taken place, evaluation and grading must also be a part of the course (Bain, 2004). In this, content knowledge and understanding, development and use of content-specific vocabulary, and improved English proficiency are assessed through formative and summative evaluations (Smith, 2004, p. xi). By formatively assessing the students throughout the semester, the teacher is able to determine what learning has taken place, where the students are experiencing difficulty, and what improvements can be made (Peters & Weisberg, 2011). Instead of simply functioning as a tool to determine the students grades, formative assessment creates a dialogue between the students and their teacher, where both the teacher can improve the course and the students can improve their learning (McKeachie, 2002). There will be many opportunities for formative assessment throughout the semester. The day-to-day in class thematic unit assignments, journals, library workshop worksheets and first blog post will all present opportunities for formative assessment. 26

27 In terms of graded assignments, the majority of weight falls in the second half of the semester. According to McKeachie (2002), this approach can reduce stress, while still encouraging study early in the semester. Furthermore, the in-class thematic unit evaluations will be cumulative. This means that the skills tested in week seven will be retested in week 12. According to McKeachie, this approach can wean students from studying for tests, so that they become lifelong learners who will be able to evaluate their own learning (2002, p. 74). Furthermore, it allows the students to incorporate their feedback from the first thematic unit evaluation into their responses for the final evaluation. These evaluations will employ short answer, and essay style questions, with the lion s share of the grade being determined by the essays. These essays will encourage the learners to produce texts, which demonstrate the ability to write for an academic audience. 27

28 Notes about Syllabus Structure A syllabus is a plan of what will happen inside and outside the classroom. It is a register of the course assignments, helping students understand both their responsibilities and their teachers. The construction of a syllabus will also help a teacher to achieve the most important objectives within the limitations of time, place, students, and resources (McKeachie & Svinicki, 2006, p. 15). As per recommendations from McKeachie & Svinicki, the attached syllabus contains a general schedule of when topics will be covered in class, assignments, and dates when they are due. The syllabus is clear about when and how learning will be assessed, and links to relevant sites on the internet. Moreover, Nilson (2010) provides a list of the components required in order for a syllabus to be complete. Taking these recommendations, the attached syllabus also contains the complete course information, information about myself and the reading materials, other materials required for the course, my students learning outcomes for the course, all graded course requirements and a complete breakdown of the grading scale, the criteria on which each written assignment, project and oral presentation will be evaluated, other course requirements aside from those computed in the grade, attendance policies, and policies for late assignments and academic dishonesty (p ). Many of these components have also been added in compliance with Carleton University s regulations and procedures (Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, ). 28 Moreover, a graphic syllabus has been added as a supplement following the assignment descriptions. This is a visual tool to communicate your course to students more effectively.

29 Specifically, it is a flowchart, graphic organizer, or diagram of the sequencing and organization of your courses major topics through the term (Nilson, 2010, p ). This aids in clarifying the relationships between assignments and themes, giving the students a higher level of understanding about the course. Furthermore, knowledge of the entire system reveals why you organized the course the way you did (Nilson, 2010, p. 39). In week six, a catch up week has been created where nothing has been planned. In conjunction with this, is a disclaimer at the end of the course schedule, stating this is a tentative schedule. Dates could be changed as we progress through the term. This allows for flexibility while teaching the course, and communicates to the students that you are interested in their needs (Huston, 2009). Finally, following the example made by Chad Richardson, a sociology professor from the United States, this syllabus uses inviting language. Instead of requiring the students to complete tasks, it invites students to participate in them. This sets a tone of positive expectations for the course (Richardson, as cited in Bain, 2004, p. 62). 29

30 References Bain, K. (2004). How do they prepare to teach? In K. Bain, What the best college teachers do (p ). Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. Belcher, D., & Hirvela, A. (2000). Literature and L2 composition: Revisiting the debate. Journal of Second Language Writing, 9(1), Bell, T. (1999). Do EAP Teachers Require Knowledge of Their Students Specialist Academic Subjects? The Internet TESL Journal, 10(10). Retrieved from Benesch, S. (2001). Critical English for academic purposes. Malwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Bloom, B. S. Ed. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals, handbook 1: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay. Brinton, D. M., Snow, M. A., & Wesche, M. B. (1989). Content-based second language instruction. New York: Newbury House. Brookfield, S. D., & Preskill, S. (1999). How discussion helps learning and enlivens classrooms. In S. D. Brookfield & S. Preskill, Discussion as a Way of Teaching (p ). San Francisco: Jossy-Bass. Carleton University. (n.d.). Course loads and advancing through esla courses. Retrieved from Chandler, J. (2009). Response to Truscott. Journal of Second Language Writing, Cho, K. & Krashen, S. (1994). Acquisition of Vocabulary from the Sweet Valley Kids Series: Adult ESL Acquisition. Journal of Reading, 37(8), Davis, S. F., & Buskist, W. (2006). What teachers need to know about teaching and learning. In W. Buskist, and S. F. Davis (Eds.), Handbook of the teaching of Psychology (p. 3-10). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. Elley, W. B., & Mangubhai, F. (1983). The impact of reading on second language learning. Reading Research Quarterly, 19(1),

31 Ellis, R. (2010). Grammar Teaching - Practice or Consciousness-Raising? In Richards, J. C. and Renandya, W. A. (Eds) Methodology in Language Teaching (p ) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ellis, R., Basturkmen, H. & Loewen, S. (2002). Doing focus-on-form. System, 30, Erkaya, O. R. (2005). Benefits of using short stories in the EFL Context. Asian EFL Journal, 8, Finkel, D. L. (2000). Let the students do the talking. In D. L. Finkel. Teaching with your mouth shut (p ). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Carleton University ( ). Undergraduate teaching: regulations and procedures. Fox, J., Cheng, L., Berman, R., Song, X., & Myles, J. (2006). Costs and benefits: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) instruction in Canadian universities. In J. Fox, & C. Doe (Eds.), A monograph on English for Academic Purposes in Canadian Universities, Carleton Papers in Applied Language Studies, XXIII, Hooks, B. (2003). Heart to Heart: Teaching with love. In B. Hooks, Teaching community: A pedagogy of hope (p ). New York: Routledge. Horst, M. (2005). Learning L2 vocabulary through extensive reading: A measurement study. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 61(3), Huston, T. (2009). Getting Ready. In T. Huston, Teaching what you don t know (p ). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Jordan, R. R. (1997). English for academic purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kasper, L.F. (2000). Content-based college ESL instruction. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Lyster, R., Lightbown, P. & Spada, N. (1999). A response to Truscott s what s wrong with oral grammar correction. Canadian Modern Language Review, 55(4), Macalister, J. (2008). Implementing extensive reading in an eap programme. ELT Journal, 62(3), McKeachie, W. J. (2002). Assessing, testing and evaluating: Grading is not the most important function. In W. J. McKeachie, Teaching tips: Strategies, research and theiry for collee and university teachers (p ). New York: Houghton Mifflin. 31