Handbook. Contributions:

Transcription

1 Handbook Contributions:

2 Handbook Table of contents 2 1. Introduction 1.1 About the project 1.2 About the handbook 3 2. Theoretical part What is the importance of language and intercultural language skills within Europe 2.2. What is the importance of innovative language learning 2.3. Ideas on possible networks 2.4. How to generate publicity about language learning 2.5. How to set up assessment and monitoring of learning results 3. Motivating learners Practical part examples of best practice 60 2

3 1. Introduction 1.1 About the project "The best education is the one you don't even notice" ("La meilleure education est celle dont on ne s'aperçoit pas") - Quote from the French writer André Malraux ( ). "Young Europeans Love Languages" is a network of European partners whose aim is to promote language learning as a key skill of lifelong learning. We believe that fun, attractive, and unconventional forms of language learning should be incorporated not only in formal education but also in other non-formal/informal contexts and leisure activities. Our network plans to identify a number of tools to raise awareness and to demonstrate the importance of language learning which will help to increase the effectiveness of language teaching. Our aims are: 1.2 to find previous projects where innovative and useful language tools have been developed but not sustained and, where possible, revive and adapt them for use with young people in non-formal and informal environments to make the process of learning meaningful and fun e.g. language learning as an aspect of sport, social and cultural activities to create a toolbox containing language learning tools which have been adapted to be integrated in other social, cultural and sporting activities for young people. About the handbook This handbook is one of the results from project YELL. It provides teachers, trainers and relevant stakeholders insight on how to implement best practices on raising awareness about cultural diversity and motivation of young people to learn foreign languages. We hope this handbook will be a reason for all to try these best practices and hopefully find a way to motivate young people to learn a language. More information on the project can be found on 2. Theoretical Part 2.1 What is the importance of language and intercultural skills 3

4 Languages are the very basis for getting to understand and tolerate different cultures in an adequate way and not only on a solely linguistic level. Today s language lessons have changed a lot during the last decades. Instead of being mere word and grammar learning institutions lots of schools and training centers have turned to become informative cultural advisers at the same time. But by far not all has been done to bring across the necessity of pluri-lingual education in all parts of the EU and the rest of the world. A lot still needs to be done. The Council of Europe with its Language Policy Division has been investigating this topic for years and they have implemented some key findings of language learning patterns into their constantly updating improvement suggestions. Actually multi-lingualism became part of political portfolios already in Why language learning is so meaningful in our 21st century society, especially in terms of employability, global cooperation and international dialogue will be shown here The Impact of language learning on employability What exactly is meant by employability? The ELSIE (English Language Skills Initiative for Employability) project team distinguishes employability from employment: it is a lifelong process where the individual s knowledge, skills, capabilities, needs and/or desires are continuously being re-evaluated through a process of reflection. Employability can be thought of as a set of achievements, understandings and personal attributes that make individuals more likely to gain employment and be successful in their chosen occupations (ESECT 2005 based on a definition from Peter Sewell, UCLan, In another statement from the ELSIE Project it reads: Plurilingual and pluricultural competence refers to the ability to use languages for the purposes of communication and to take part in intercultural interaction, where a person, viewed as a social agent has proficiency, of varying degrees, in several languages and experience of several cultures. This is not seen as the superposition or juxtaposition of distinct competences, but rather as the existence of a complex or even composite competence on which the user may draw. ( In our modern and globally interwoven world the importance of multi-lingual skills in industry, trade and politics is more than obvious. There is a growing need for employees and decision makers to be capable to handle working situations in and with foreign countries, and therefore more and more companies with customers or suppliers abroad can t do without personnel who speak at least one foreign language. Today s education must meet these needs from the very beginning, because the tendency of even more industrial global networking is increasing. With a staff of well-trained foreign language speakers the value of a company rises immensely. Their jobs often involve finding out important facts about the international market situation, the business environment and the recent findings in research 4

5 concerning their products, the latest marketing strategies, raw material sources and a lot more. As John Canning from the University of Southampton puts it in his examination of employability and the study of modern foreign languages, which appeared in the Journal of Employability and the Humanities Issue 3 in Summer 2009, globalization means that business is increasingly taking place across international boundaries. In order to penetrate foreign markets successfully, employers need graduates who speak the language(s) of the country in which they wish to make an impact. More sophisticated analyses speak of the intercultural competence and communication skills developed by modern languages graduates and how these skills make them highly employable, even when the employer does not require languages. Intuitively, it would appear that modern languages graduates are highly employable individuals who have skills and attributes that employers demand. According to a study of Catherine Franc from the University of Manchester ( EBL and employability ) the attributes that come along with proficient language skills are, among others: communicative skills (effective team work ability, supporting and motivating ability) self-management skills (time management, self-reliability etc.) interpersonal skills (leadership, awareness of cultural diversity) intellectual or cognitive skills (...ablility to think under pressure, inferencial and critical judgement skills, organising ideas appropriately, general knowledge of subject related topics) practical and applied skills (using reference material, library research, self-aware independent language learners) etc... These different capacities make such applicants highly appreciated in a globally operating enterprise. Catherine Franc also states, that in Great Britain 21% of employers consider language skills an important capability and 70% of employers consider soft skills vital for potential graduate recrutees. ( Moreover she depicts in her report, that language graduates have the highest employability rates of all humanities graduates. A survey in the UK by Archer and Davidson, 2008, has shown the importance of communication skills when applying for a job in the UK. The following graph shows the percentage of employers favouring different skills: 5

6 When looking at communication skills we should at first consider the employability of migrants hunting for a job. It is understood that someone who wants to make their way in a certain company must at least be able to communicate in the language which is spoken by the majority of the staff, i.e. the country they are situated in. Attempts have been made in Europe to enable those people to get some basic efficiency in the language of the country they live in. For example since January 2005 immigrants and migrants in Germany have had to pass a DTS test Deutschtest für Zuwanderer in order to gain the right to stay in the country and to work there. It aims at giving immigrants a sufficient command of the German language for their easier integration. The path that leads to a successful exam is a modular course system based on the European Framework of Reference for Language, which has been launched in 2001 in order to mark specifications of language-learning targets. It was developed by the Language Policy Division of the Council of Europe and is meant to support the development of plurilingualism and pluriculturalism in Europe. Regarding the DTS this means that on a scale from A1 to C2 the aspirants for the test attend a basic and follow-on language course leading to level B1. Physicians, nurses, firemen and other social service providers even need a level B2 examination if they want to get a job in their respective vocational field. By these examinations they prove to have suitable language skills for the German employment market. Level B1 means they are able to understand texts with predominantly and frequently used everyday and vocational language, which should be the minimum job market requirement in a European country. Moreover this exam provides a profound knowledge of the cultural background and history of the country people work and live in. 6

7 The problem that often comes up with immigrants is that in the beginning they often have only little contact with local people. Often they stick to their relatives and friends who come from the same country and most of the time they keep speaking their own mother language. If there aren t any relatives or friends they often adjourn to their homes because quite frequently they are afraid of xenophobia or of being badmouthed when they cannot understand what people in public places, at school or at their workplace say. Language classes can help to get out of this separation tendency and support them to gain a better foothold in society. In order to start a successful job career, language shortcomings must be overcome from the very beginning, before those people come to slip into a social gap where their chances on the job market are nothing but roustabout and badly paid jobs. Some human resources managers do not even consider it worth the trouble inviting someone to a job interview when they already find the application letter being full of spelling mistakes. And if they do, the moment the counterpart apparently does not understand the simplest question and is unable to respond adequately, it becomes clear, that this person will be hard to handle and that they will probably get everything mixed up. So their chance to get the job is constricted from the outset. But not only immigrants and migrants face problems with a company s home language. There are still an incredibly high number of illiterates who have little chance to succeed when applying for a job other than a low skilled or production line laborer. And moreover in a long run it is most likely that a lot of such workplaces will be exchanged by machines or robots that can do the same job cheaper and more effective. Therefore we need more support in schools and education institutes for migrants to improve their language skills, if we do not want the unemployment rates to explode, not to speak of the many school leavers without apprenticeship training positions. During the past decades a lot has already been done to countersteem these tendencies. But still the number of enterprises which tend to replace low qualification workers by machines is increasing rapidly, as machines never afford breaks or knock-offs, nor do they need holidays or company perks. Qualified personnel on the other hand will hardly be exchangeable. And language and communication skills are generally the very basis of a good qualification Foreign languages as a prerequisite of a company s competitiveness on a global market When a company can choose between different suppliers or service providers, one speaking the own language and the other not, they are most likely to take the one they can easily communicate with. ( Languages mean business employability and competitiveness through language, Accordingly suppliers and providers will be 7

8 looking for applicants who speak at best more than one language if they want to expand into the global market and build up a clientele abroad. In the Barcelona language conference in 2002 it was suggested that education in the EU should conclude two more languages besides the mother tongue to meet the 21st century requirements - one foreign language for general communication and one custom tailored for specific needs of the different areas in trade and industry, in order to render the students suitable applicants for vacancies in a global going company. The educational levels rank between mere basic speaking and understanding capacity to academic skills. Language teaching has more and more adapted to this situation, not only in vocational education centers and schools but also in in-house language courses for companies. With the European Language Portfolio all levels of language learners can jump in and develop their skills from the first steps of understanding a language to the most advanced level, even years after they left school. In the article How many languages does a European need? Alia Papageorgiou, the spokesman of Leonard Orban, the European Commissioner for Multilingualism, states, that since 2004, the budget for translations and language work in the EU has increased by 20%, which is 1% of the community budget. This means, that every citizen pays 2.6 Euros per year on linguistic expenses. And still almost 50 % of the citizens are monolingual. ( Being aware of these facts in Germany many companies in trade and commerce have begun to keep their entire communication in English, even if none of the workers involved has a language other than German, their mother tongue. Especially in companies that work closely together with global partners, whose head quarters are based in a different country or who are parent companies to internationally operating subsidiaries, these trial tests have shown excellent results. They started up with their meetings being kept solely in English and then spread this approach on more business activities. Such attempts help a lot when it comes to international business contacts, providing a good deal of standard words for the vocational field one works in, which helps to improve the capability of explaining certain projects and procedures. Also the frequency of speaking English has had a positive effect on the workers faculty to express themselves in international conferences, phone calls and other communicational activities. But it has also encouraged a diversity of discussions. Still only a few staffs appreciate these attempts. Some of the opponents say that it is a sign of very low self-esteem of a company, if they neglect their own language. Also it leads to exactly the exalted position of English being a lingua franca that the European Council would like to countersteem. In the UK knowledge of English seems to be expected from international business contacts, which has lead to a certain neglecting of proper training in foreign languages. The perception of English as the international language is cited by employers in 8

9 the EU as a reason why speaking foreign languages is not essential (Sidnick, The Impact of Foreign Languages on British Business- Part 1, 2003, p.1). The importance of a direct and accurate understanding of a language, without the need of someone stepping in between to do the translation, is obvious. There will always remain a gap of understanding between an original version of an idea and the same idea brought across by interpreters. Moreover the more translation bridges a presentation has to undergo, the more boring it gets and the less of the information remains pristine when it arrives at the audience s ears. So the tendency goes towards an enhancement of multi linguistic skills of a company s personnel and away from hiring translators for distinct business activities. In-house trainings and adult education centers are used to bring about the lack of language skills that has arisen during times where languages were considered less important for management positions. Those who have only recently graduated from school and university have the advantage of a language training that has been adapted to a global market s needs; at best they know several languages a company operates in. International markets demand multilingual communication strategies which often have to be tailor-made to a company s requirements. The target must be to reach clients as efficiently and effectively as possible. So being able to communicate in a direct way by extensively knowing language and culture of the distinct countries of business partners is not only an advantage but almost a prerequisite for good international sales reps as well as for the average administrative staff. And although low skilled workers do not explicitly need language skills for their jobs, sometimes they face situations where the knowledge of a certain language can be very helpful, when they come across manuals, handbooks, descriptions and procedure instructions which have not been translated in their own mother language. A non-representative ad hoc survey in some companies in the district of Cham, Germany has shown similar results as the one in the UK above, but this time the main focus was put on foreign language skills and not on communication skills in general. These are by no means constant figures, as the importance of communication skills in the mother tongue as well as in different major and minor languages is still increasing every year with the rising need of international business contacts in the free world market. The survey was meant to evaluate the following factors for a human resources manager to employ an applicant, varying according to the industry and workplace context: general skills ability to work in teams self dependant work 9

10 one foreign language two and more foreign languages self confidence good faculty of speech in mother language outer appearance The graph shows that language skills in sales, purchasing and logistics are more highly evaluated than even general skills and team work abilities. In production, however, the need for languages is still quite low. Certainly there are more decisive factors for a successful job application than languages, as we can see from the diagram above. It depends highly on the line of business and department in question. A production line worker will hardly need to negotiate in a foreign language and a shop keeper in an average corner shop will easily get along with some survival words in English, still the most common language spoken in the EU. But in terms of a big multinational who seeks to employ an applicant in a highly qualified position, multilinguistic skills are of indispensible importance. In our society with a high rate of unemployment applicants have to market themselves well, even more in the future. There is a lot of competition on the job market and the more skills someone has the more likely a company will invite them to an interview. 10

11 In a study on the effects on the European economy of shortages of foreign language skills in enterprise (ELAN), commissioned by the Directorate General for Education and Culture of the European Commission in December 2005 and undertaken by CILT, the UK National Centre for Languages, in collaboration with an international team of researchers it has been found out, [ ] that language skills can significantly improve export success for European companies. Small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) which have a languages strategy and invest in staff with language skills are shown to be able to achieve 44% more export sales than those which don't. Analysis of the survey responses identified some key elements of language management which were associated with strong export performance, and there could be very significant gains to the EU economy if all exporting SMEs employed these techniques. ( 2020th century entrepreneurs are very much aware of the fact, that in order to remain competitive in the face of a global market cross-cultural activity is the only step in the right direction. But as the ways of working and communicating differ a lot from country to country, often things get mixed up and imputations and guesses regarding the meaning of certain explanations can lead to a disaster in business as well as in political and everyday situations. It is therefore of greatest importance especially for decision makers, sales reps and the like to be able to distinguish between guesses and reality when working abroad, and well trained staff with excellent language skills are therefore very much required, at least in the high ranking positions of a company. Very often these vacancies are filled with native speakers, as they are not only capable of understanding and speaking the language, but are also aware of some kind of hidden meaning of words in live meetings. Words are more than mere formula which can be built in a certain frame of context, and frequently a native speaker can identify a resonating undertone that someone who was not born into this language is just unable to hear. But certainly not all of those vacancies are filled with native speakers. Besides general sophisticated skills in their special field of operation the chance for multi-language speakers to being accepted in a managing position is still higher than for those who lack these capacities. But it is not only the target group of decision makers and superiors who must be able to meet the global market requirements. Although the Council of Europe vehemently rejects the idea of English being the lingua franca, the predominant language in Europe and suggests multi-linguistic solutions instead, still the mostly used business language in the EU is English, and even the average administration worker must be capable of making enquiries over the internet, which at least calls for a minimum of reading and writing skills in English. While multinational companies have always had their language skilled personnel for special purposes, nowadays even the small and medium sized enterprises usually can t survive without international contacts. In order for them to remain competitive they increasingly 11

12 have to build up an international clientele and this way they need employees with sufficient language skills. Over internet portals each and every enterprise small, medium sized or big and multinational - can be traced from all around the world and it is always likely that business people worldwide try to get in touch with them. In this way at least handling s and phone calls in a foreign language is a growing challenge for even the smallest manufacturing company, and thus very often the old staff, who learned only little languages in school or who have not used this knowledge for many years, will have to improve their language skills either autonomously, in in-house trainings or evening classes. As some of them find it a nuisance to learn languages in addition to their daily work, these attempts often fail. Those who are not willing or incapable to keep up with these requirements are likely to get replaced by younger ones who can cope with the new international business situations. If they want to avoid a lot of expenses on exterior translators and interpreters they will have to make sure that their staffs that were not well trained in languages before learn the languages required in time. And for new applicants it is necessary to bring these skills along, if they want to join the company. Considering CEOs, managers and sales representatives, an international workplace requires being able to apply almost all business skills to any foreign language situation. That means, not only knowing a lot of words and phrases makes a good representative of a company, but also their capability to express their thoughts and ideas, to mirror the intent of the company, to develop industry awareness and personality skills in the language in question: in short, they have to think in the language and to figure out plans and strategies in the context of distinct cultures, and this involves more than just learning words by heart. Those who want to be successful climbers on a career ladder must develop these skills, if they have not yet achieved them. And with translators and interpreters standing between oneself and prospective customers you will always face the problem that you must completely trust their faculties and you can never handle the situation in the same way you would in your own words; especially in case you are a well versed negotiator in your own language this can be a substantial disadvantage. For the future it is estimated that the need for multilingual skills will be constantly increasing, not only in big multinational enterprises. This, however, does not apply to every language to the same extent as it can be seen from the following graphs, which corresponds approximately to the findings of the above mentioned ELAN studies: 12

13 now 7 % 7 % 10 % 28 % 17 % 7 % 7 % 7 % English German French Russian 1 % 4 % 2 % 5 % 20 % 12 % in the future 3 % 1 % 26 % English German 18 % 13 % French Russian

14 Most Europeans nowadays learn languages for professional purposes, whereas in the past everyday language and tourist language for holiday purposes were the most popular reasons for taking up language courses. However, if a basic understanding of colloquial language is not given, a higher understanding can never be reached, that is why the need of general language knowledge with little attention to specific business or technical terms and phrases will always remain the same. Still if we look into modern language school books there will at least be some business talk situations included. This also reflects the growing importance of business language in a global market. According to the above mentioned ELAN report investigations have shown, that a significant amount of business is being lost to European enterprise as a result of lack of language skills. On the basis of the [investigated] sample, it is estimated that 11% of exporting European SMEs (945,000 companies) may be losing business because of identified communication barriers. Analysis of the findings from the survey identified a clear link between languages and export success. Four elements of language management were found to be associated with successful export performance: having a language strategy, appointing native speakers, recruiting staff with language skills and using translators and interpreters. There could be very significant gains across the whole EU economy if all exporting SMEs employed these techniques[ ] The survey of SMEs found that a significant amount of business is being lost as a result of lack of language skills. Across the sample of nearly 2,000 businesses, 11% of respondents (195 SMEs) had lost a contract as a result of lack of language skills. Of these, 37 businesses had lost actual contracts which together were valued at between 8 million and 13.5 million. A further 54 businesses had lost potential contracts worth in total between 16.5 million and 25.3 million. At least ten businesses had each lost contracts worth over 1 million. According to these findings, the average loss per business over a threeyear period is 325,000. Clearly, the survey identified only those situations where companies were aware of the business lost or potentially lost, and the real figure may be much greater. SMEs experience intercultural as well as language barriers when operating across borders. In all but eight countries more than 10% of respondents were aware of having encountered intercultural difficulties. (ELAN, An increasing readiness to be aware of these impacts on business is definitely a challenge for future enterprises. From all this it can easily be concluded that a proper school education in languages with good marks can unlock the door to a good apprenticeship with the chance of finally getting accepted and promoted. In some schools, especially in secondary schools, it is already possible to pass the Cambridge Business English examination, with which at least a good understanding of English should be guaranteed, and an increasing number of students embrace this offer. In other languages similar examinations can be taken, as for example the Italian CILS, the Russian TRKI, the DELF and DALF in French, the DELE in Spanish, in Chinese 14

15 the HSK and in Japan the JLPT certificate, just to mention some. In language schools or on the respective internet websites more detailed information can be found on these examinations. In the past in German schools of modern languages the main focus was put on English, which does not quite meet the modern findings about competitiveness on the international market. Now the tendency has changed towards a broader offer of major and minor languages. In border areas more implicit efforts are being made to teaching the language of the neighboring countries. This reflects the growing cross-border activities of the industry in this area during the last years. In these regions a great deal of native speakers are chosen for these activities, and efforts are being made to train staffs in the explicit languages Global Cooperation In his report on Language Acquisition and Affective Variables Jill McCain states: As the global society in which we live flows more easily across state borders, our people, cultures, companies, governments, and institutions from around the world have more contact. Borders are blurred and the importance of bi- and multi-lingualism becomes necessary to sustain this constant contact. As a result of this increase in language acquisition and teaching, much research has been devoted to exploring ways in which a diverse set of factors affects learning and acquisition. The significance of these variables lies in the impact on how we teach second languages. In a world where barriers to inter-cultural and interlinguistic interaction are being torn down, this research will have a great impact on its future. ( In the past the approach to applying a language was basically like applying mathematical or chemical formula. People put no or little emphasis on handling real communication situations, which definitely does not meet the requirements of a modern language suitable for global cooperation. Therefore this very artificial approach has been modified and adapted a lot until it reached the level of the European Language Portfolio with its Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, wherein the importance of not only knowing words and phrases, but also the cultural background of the diverse countries and implementation of this knowledge in real life situations is aimed at. Not only is a decent knowledge of words required. Language skills comprise so many aspects, from a very gross level of a comprehensive treasury of words to the level of soft skills, understanding hidden meanings behind words, body language etc. Culture and history of a country have led to the respective language that has been spoken throughout centuries, and if we want to honor and give credit to the historical background of a certain culture we should be aware if our correct use of words. It is not just only a question of politeness. Actually this development process of languages will never stop. Language nowadays keeps adapting and changing in the same pace that business globally 15

16 changes, that means very rapidly, as it reflects the so speedily advancing research findings, innovations and inventions of our present world. Now borders have been torn down, political decisions are no longer restricted to only one nation but can have an influence on the whole world. If we look at environmental issues as an example we will find that there is no way we can avoid communication with our global fellow men, and speaking their language is only one approach to understanding peoples multiple ways. Studying foreign histories, cultures, traditions, styles, ways of thinking and the like is a basic means to further a global understanding. Our modern language tuition and books meet these requirements much more than the ones of the past, as a matter of fact. Modern language training emphasizes the cultural background of the respective countries exceedingly, as it is well known that these factors can even overweigh the sole eloquent use of a language when it comes to meeting international partners and to which extend they can help to create a friendly atmosphere, which is always a good basis for political and private meetings as well as business negotiations and the like. In short, besides verbal and non-verbal communication, negotiation, presentation and team work abilities language skills nowadays involve also the skill of correct behavior in a foreign country and knowing how to avoid embarrassing situations. For example in Asian countries it is often important to know the respective etiquette, because if you behave crudely it is very likely that a competitor with better manners will get the nod. In countries where retentiveness is appreciated talkativeness and boastfulness are repulsive, whereas somewhere else this could be understood as a sign of self assurance and superiority. And this is only one out of hundreds and thousands of situations where improper knowledge about each others ways can lead to disastrous outcomes of international business meetings. You should definitely know in advance which situations you could meet when you go on business travels abroad. Being a general means of intercultural understanding language training nowadays also provides methods to acquire a certain awareness of personal behavior, to render one s outfit suitable for business meetings abroad, to understand body language in different cultures which can in fact differ decisively and a lot more. But not always do we face a vis-à-vis that enables us to correctly identify body language. The internet as a means of connecting the whole world by one mouse click has definitely had one of the most important impacts on our 21st century business society which may not be neglected when talking about global cooperation. On the contrary it is the foremost mentioned topic when you ask about the importance of knowing languages in the context of global cooperation. People from all over the world meet in cyberspace, and even here we can find some sort of culture and (n)etiquette. Cultural gaps between individuals and the cyber culture can lead to a lot of misunderstanding even more than in face to face situations. 16

17 As stated in the paper Hard Technologies Meet Soft Skills by Mackie Chase, Leah Macfadyen, Kenneth Reeder and Jörg Roche The lack of elements inherent in face-to-face communication further problematises intercultural communications online by limiting opportunities to give and save face, and to intuit meaning from non-verbal cues.... That is to say, we cannot directly see our counterpart on the internet, we cannot judge from their reaction on our statements if they are pleased or disgusted. The internet community is somehow a bodiless phantom we have to deal with, and this makes the outcome of communication sometimes unpredictable. Still the internet and web meetings will become increasingly part of our future business lives and we will have to deal with the difficulties as well. It is today s most common means to get into contact with companies, clients, suppliers and so forth from all over the world. The suitable diction of words helps to avoid undesirable outcomes of communicative approaches. Business letters have almost everywhere been replaced by s with their usually informal speech; and language is again different in the contexts it applies to. Communication now takes rapid ways and decisions must sometimes be made within half an hour, or even the time it takes to answer an . There is not much time to think of the correct tone and proper language skills are a prerequisite of this. And is the common opinion really true, that English is the one and only suitable internet language? As a matter of fact it has become the most common one during the last decades, but the importance of Japanese, Chinese, Spanish and German websites can not just be negated in a global market. Although the World Wide Web is open to any language, only few website designers use this offer and instead uphold their respective monolinguistic versions, very often kept solely English. This tendency should be stopped by a greater variety of online pages with different languages if we want to uphold the idea of sustainable differences of cultures and languages which has been supported by the EU in recent years. As a contribution to a newsgroup discussion, the report English - the universal language on the Internet? has been edited, where it is stated, that actually from a linguistic point of view English is not really suitable for being a universal internet language and it is widely used on the internet to distinguish between Internet users and Internet illiterates. It is much more appreciable to go for a mutli-linguisic approach, as a multitude of languages are of growing importance on the international global market, and even minority languages should find more acceptance on the web. ( Moreover, according to ELAN (see above): English is a key language for gaining access to export markets. However, the survey results suggest that the picture is far more complex than the much-quoted view that English is the world language. Russian is extensively used in Eastern Europe as a lingua franca (along with German and Polish). French is used to trade in areas of Africa and Spanish is used similarly in Latin America. Longer-term business 17

18 partnerships depend upon relationship-building and relationship-management. To achieve this, cultural and linguistic knowledge of the target country are essential. In the future multi-linguistic skills will be even more essential for global cooperation. It looks like in a world, where more autonomous countries are developing their national assertiveness the trend towards only few internet languages will be redeemed by a multitude Intercultural dialogue If you talk to a man in a language he understands, it goes to his head. If you talk to him in his language, it goes to his heart. (Nelson Mandela) In the EU with its 27 member states apart from a great deal of minority languages there are currently 23 official languages, whereas in 2004 there were only 11. Article 22 of the EU s charter of fundamental rights reads that EU citizens are to respect all linguistic diversity and according to Article 21 discrimination based on language is forbidden. The principle of sustaining the diversity of cultures, traditions and beliefs, including languages is the sole intent on which the EU grounds. A distinct understanding of different ways of thinking, believing and behaving has to be developed and the differences in cultures must be appreciated and tolerated in order to exchange ideas and attitudes for fruitful future cooperation. Only with an openness and acceptance to learn from each other can a bi- and multi-lateral dialogue hit its target. In the White Paper on Intercultural Dialogue titled Living Together as Equals in Dignity which has been released by the European Government (posted by Jürgen Kurtz, Karlsruhe University of Education, Germany) intercultural dialogue [...] enables us to move forward together, to deal with our different identities constructively and democratically on the basis of shared universal values. To advance intercultural dialogue, [...] intercultural competences should be taught and learned [...]. The EU sees the use of its citizens languages as one of the factors which make it more transparent, more legitimate and more efficient [ ]. The ability to understand and communicate in more than one language already a daily reality for the majority of people across the globe - is a desirable life-skill for all European citizens. Learning and speaking other languages encourages us to become more open to others, their cultures and outlooks; it improves cognitive skills and strengthens learners mother tongue skills; it enables us to take advantage of the freedom to work or study in another Member State. ( - Europa languages portal). The idea has come up to use more language technology to enable everyone to have any language translated into their mother tongue. But if we look at internet translation portals like Babelfish it appears that language always forms some kind of lively unit with its 18

19 contexts, which is hard to put into simple rules, and sometimes strange word fragments and incomprehensible sentences are the outcome of these attempts. Of course translation programs help to overcome the first gross barriers in language, but on a refined level they will never fit at least not in international business activities. To cite one more quote from the Europa languages portal: Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) increasingly integrate themselves into our daily lives. If these technologies do not understand us in all our cultural and linguistic diversity, that diversity will be threatened. But still the authors are convinced that in the near future language technologies will develop a lot in the future and will lead to a better cross-cultural understanding, in fact they see this process already been kicked off. Language technologies are essential to ensuring that all European languages and the culture, art and history with which they are inextricably entwined - maintain their place in tomorrow s globalised, interconnected world. Leonard Orban, the European Commissioner for Multilingualism stated in his lecture "Multilingualism and intercultural dialogue" held at the Forum on Multilingualism in the EU in Bratislava in 2008: We need concrete exchanges and mutual understanding, not just between community representatives, but also between those they represent: ordinary individuals. And more cohesive, more sustainable societies will be the reward. Dialogue is the key ingredient. It is the yeast that allows our societies to mature from multiculturalism to interculturalism[ ]. Naturally, languages are among the most practical tools we can offer for the purpose. This is one of the key thrusts in our new strategy on Multilingualism, which was just recently adopted by the Commission The commission s report on multilingualism addresses both migrants and those who just want to learn languages as well as their own mother tongue, to encourage them to use the languages more than just for communicative purposes; that is to say, they should render them more tolerant, open-minded and aware of sameness and differences. The idea of the European project is expressed in the slogan Unity in Diversity. This means, we should be far from thinking, differences divide us from each other, as on the contrary they might as well bring us closer together. To counteract intolerance the best approach is not to pretend that all people are the same, but instead to acknowledge their differences and at the same time understand them both on a linguistic and on a cultural level. There are great benefits from learning other languages other than just linguistic skills: the awareness of differences, the ability to go to the different countries and getting to know the differences, by travelling and working there. Surveys have shown that the main hindrance for trying something new and exchanging ideas and living with our neighbors in Europe is a lack of language skills. The sense of a European identity is only given when we open our minds towards the other European cultures. Languages strengthen the life-chances of our citizens. They provide citizens with greater choice on the job market; and more equal access 19

20 to services and rights. They can be pivotal in our external relations. And they can help European enterprise prosper in a new geopolitical climate. (L. Orban) Examples from education and industry, career development So how do language classes today actually reflect the growing importance for employability, international cooperation and global dialogue? The LACE (Languages and cultures in Europe) studies have lead to the following findings: ( 53.1% of respondents to [an] online survey report spend some 80% of classroom time on language learning, and 20% classroom time on developing intercultural competence, whereas as many as 32.9% spend 60% of classroom time on language learning, and 40% on developing intercultural competence. What we can deduce from this is that considerable attention is given to the development of intercultural competence in classroom practice, which appears to be aligned with the position of intercultural competence as specified within the different curricula. Intercultural competences have become part of foreign language curricula, although they are still considerably less stressed than linguistic and communication competences. New didactic and methodological methods in schools and language training centers help to develop intercultural competence. Often these are TV programs, news on TV, DVDs and the like, newspapers, magazines, lectures, song lyrics, texts from the internet and a lot more. Unfortunately the majority of teachers still keep to the traditional oral teaching style, using no other means than their ordinary school book approach. But attempts are being made to change this way of teaching towards a more future-oriented style. In the White paper on Intercultural Dialogue (Strassbourg, 2008) the council of Europe Ministers or foreign affairs agreed, that [ ] the Council of Europe will provide assistance and recommendations to competent authorities in reviewing their education policies for all languages in the education system. It will also produce consultative guidelines and tools for describing common European standards of language competence. Since then a lot of efforts have been undertaken towards this direction. To enhance intercultural competences institutions like the European Centre for Global Interdependence and Solidarity in Lisbon, the European Centre for Modern Languages in Graz, the two European Youth Centers Strasbourg and Budapest have been initiated to enable youths to get into direct contact with the language and culture of the different countries. Ideally all nations should participate in these endeavors, not only in the EU but worldwide. There is hope that the recent efforts will lead to better education in this field and will enable global communication to develop even more for the future generations. In order to achieve this, annual seminars are being enhanced by the Council of Europe, language Policy Division, for example yearly international seminars on the ELP; the Languages in education (Languages of schooling) and the right to plurilingual and intercultural education 20

21 seminar in Strasbourg 2009, the Cross-language benchmarking seminar, June 2008, Sèvres and a lot more. If the traditional language education in school is not considered enough for acquiring adequate linguistic skills for the growing international market the option could be to attend one of 14 private European schools, with students from kindergarten to primary and secondary school level. The curriculum of all European Schools, leads to the European Baccalaureate, a graduation diploma that qualifies university studies in any country of the European Union. Originally they were meant for children whose parents work at embassies or internationally operating enterprises with their mother language being other than the one of the host country, but nowadays they has opened their gates for other children as well. As these schools are all private they are quite expensive and therefore only restricted lo a limited number of pupils. For students who want to spend one or two years of their studies in a different country, there is a lot of information material available over the embassies of the respective nations, at universities, on the internet and further educational institutions is the European study year, and on this occasion many ideas came up from universities all over Europe to encourage students to take advantage of a stay abroad. For those who are interested in these offers, the official internet website for ESY (European Study Year) holds out a multitude of facilities. A very good page to look at for those who are interested in internships, apprenticeships and volunteer opportunities in the USA is Furthermore an increasing number of globally operating enterprises offer their apprentices and other staff members to work for a while in subsidiaries abroad to get to know both language and cultural background of these countries. This background knowledge makes them highly indispensible for future cooperation. These endeavors do not only lead to a better understanding among colleagues in transnational operations but also enhance a border-crossing feeling of corporal identity and can be considered to be one of the oftquoted soft skills. The awareness of language skills being the very basis of global business has risen in most enterprises, and vocational training has begun to meet these requirements. Additionally so-called mobility programs have been launched to enable apprentices and nongraduate trainees to undertake a placement abroad, but still only few of them avail themselves on that offer, although programs such as Leonardo da Vinci have strongly recommended mobility of students and trainees. But with the increasing need of multilinguistic skills it can be expected that in the future this attitude will change. More information concerning this topic can be found in the article Mobility of apprentices and 21

22 trainees across the EU: case study of the chemical industry on Languages are the entrance gate to a variety of feasible vocational trainings and professions. Obviously translating, interpreting and teaching are possible choices, but also lecturing and teaching in foreign language departments or launching a career in an administration office in a multinational enterprises. Furthermore positions like multilingual PAs or foreign language customer service representatives might be aimed at or workplaces in policies, civil service, charities and international organizations, tourism, media or journalism. These are just some example of choices that can only be plausible on the basis of a proper language education. Some youths and young adults need some time to become aware of the importance of language for their careers, but after having left school it is by no means too late to improve their missing skills. Adult education institutes as well as online languages courses lead to a high proficiency level of linguistic capability and can be concluded with final examinations, if required. As a result of our investigations we can easily see that there is definitely a growing need of knowing languages for our own sake, for the sake of global cooperation in business and politics and for the sake of good progress in intercultural communication. The question is not if languages are a suitable basis for a successful global network, it is more, how language skills can be transferred to students in an adequate way. The before mentioned new learning strategies within the European Framework of Reference for Language that have been developed during the past decades follow the findings of modern psychological, biological and neurological research, so that language classes and language books both in school and in adult education were adjusted to make the access to languages easier for everyone. The variety of opportunities these innovative language teaching methods can offer will be shown in the following chapter. 22

23 2.2 Why innovative language teaching is important Learning a foreign language is an enriching experience for everybody. It comprises much more than grammar and conversation exercises in textbooks. Not only is language a communication system, it is also a cultural code which transports complex information about cultural norms, values, traditions and rules of conduct. Foreign language competencies thus enable deeper insights into other cultures and lifestyles, they broaden our horizon, promote intercultural communication and help us to overcome personal and national barriers. In the age of globalization and internationalization of political, social and economic relations it becomes more and more important to speak several languages fluently. Language serves as a mode of communication between people, as a medium of interpersonal cooperation. We use language in order to share our thoughts, feelings and desires as well as knowledge about ourselves and the world by making use of symbolic representations, categorial perceptions and conceptual ideas. For intellectuals like Wilhelm von Humboldt, Martin Heidegger and Ernst Cassirer language is a medium of thinking and world view par exellence. According to them, every perception of objects and circumstances in the world is linguistically structured. Thus, language always concerns the whole person: his/her perception and thinking as well as his/her feelings and action. Language involves a person in his/her bodilyemotional-intellectual totality (Segermann 2000). This is of course also true in teaching and learning of foreign languages. Consequently, holistic approaches to language learning are important in order to encourage, motivate and support learners in their learning processes, no matter how old they are or why they want to learn a foreign language. This insight not only has a pedagogic foundation; also research in the field of psychology, biology and neurology indicates the importance of adressing learners as a whole and developing innovative methods of teaching and learning. In this chapter, we are therefore going to take a look into the human brain in order to find out about how people learn, how information is processed and what truth lies in popular estimations about the different functions of the two cerebral hemispheres. This approach is based on the belief that the findings of neurological and biopsychological science can greatly enhance the effectiveness of education. Building on the information aquired, the theory of different learning types is discussed. In the centre of interest stands the question of whether there are different ways of learning. The biochemist and author Frederic Vester popularized the notion of different learning types (Lerntypen) in the 1970s. His theory was widely absorbed in the educational practice, but also critized by scientists who disapproved of his assumption in favour of the idea of different learning styles (Lernstile). The theoretical input provided shall illustrate and substantiate the statement formulated earlier: Innovative and holistic language teaching is important. 23

24 Furthermore, this chapter will show why innovative language teaching can be important in relation to social and behavioural theories and offers theoretical strategies for language learning and innovative examples findings of neurological and bio-psychological science Left Brain/Right Brain: What differences are there between the two cerebral hemispheres? The brain is one of the most important organs of the human body. It is an astonishingly complex neural network which consists of 100 billions of neurons that are complexly arranged and branched thus enabling approximately 100 trillions of connections among each other. A neuronal signal can be transmitted in nearly unlimited ways. Since the late 1960s intensive research on the cerebral hemispheres has been conducted in the fields of neuroscience and biopsychology. The knowledge acquired is clearly significant for education. In the popular scientific and nonprofessional literature, however, these insights have been oversimplified and absorbed in questionable ways. There, everything seems to be quite simple and clear: The left hemisphere of the brain, one says, works in analytical-logical ways whereas the right hemisphere is responsible for phantasy, emotion and musicality. The entire subject has evoked a lot of interest on the part of the media, educators and individuals alike. This is why it only takes minutes of research to find tables like the one presented below. They attribute different functional abilities exclusively to either one or the other brain hemisphere. Left hemisphere auditive analytical rational logical linear chronological gradually amenable to differences Right hemisphere visual comprising intuitive analog global spatial simultaneously amenable to similarity Table 1: Popular scientific visualisation of different brain functions Source: abif et al. Conclusions drawn on the basis of these dichotomizations also concern education: Exponents oppose the prevailing education system as it is assumed to be too much focused on the left cerebral hemisphere. According to this notion, the consequence of this one-sided focus is the pauperization of the right hemisphere causing learning difficulties among students. 24

25 Education imposes a structure of didactic instruction, right-wrong criteria, dominance of the logical-objective over the intuitive-subjective on the learning child so early in the course of emergent awareness of his world and of himself, that except of rare cases creative potential is inhibited, or at least diminished. This leads us to affirm that our system of education is one which leads to the underdevelopment of the right hemisphere. (Raina 1979: 13) Although the paper quoted here dates back to the end of the 1970s, this kind of thinking hasn t yet lost its relevance. While there might be some truth behind it, this simplistic adoption of complex insights isn t desirable. The popular view holds that the two cerebral hemispheres of the human brain differ greatly in the nature of the cognitive processes they support: The left hemisphere dominates and suppresses the right, and if the right hemisphere could be liberated from the oppression of the left, more effective performance would result. In the nonprofessional literature the dichotomy of function between the two hemispheres usually is presented in the most sweeping and general terms. (Hines 1987: 600) Picture 1: Left Brain Right Brain. Source: VaXzine 2008 The problem is that neuroscientific papers tend to be hardly accessible to laymen. They approach an expert audience, require a lot of knowledge and are accordingly difficult to read. It is nevertheless advisable to engage in explantions that allow for complexity, since understanding the processes of human learning can contribute crucially to improving learning methods and enhancing education. The following chapter therefore tries to dig a little deeper into how the cerebral hemispheres work and what conclusions can be drawn for educational practice. Cerebral lateralisation of functions: An introduction The human forebrain consists of two structures, the left and the right cerebral hemisphere. They are completely separated except for the corpus callosum, a longitudinal fissure, which connects the two hemispheres. It consists of million nerve fibres and serves as information transmitter and coordinator between both hemispheres which partially undertake different functions in information processing. It is evident that there are differences between the left and the right hemisphere in the way they process information, but they are much smaller and less clearly dichotomized than popular scientific literature claims. As for a lot of functions, there are no differences between the hemispheres; and if there are, they are rather small and only slightly in 25

26 favour of one hemisphere (Pinel/Pauli 2007: 534). The point is that there are no definite differences. Nevertheless the myth persists that different abilities are exclusively located in one hemisphere, e.g. that language is exclusively controlled by the left hemisphere, whereas emotions and creativity are exclusively under the control of the right hemisphere. Example: Language and Brain Language is a good example for illustrating myths entwining around the topic, but also for explaining cerebral lateralization. In the 1860s scientists located two main speech centres both predominantly in the left hemisphere of the brain.1 Speech centres are areas which have special functions in speech processing and language production. The Wernicke s area is named after the German neurologist Carl Wernicke. It is the sensorial speech area of the brain which is involved in the understanding of written and spoken language. The Broca s area was discovered by the French surgeon Paul Broca and is responsible for grammar, syntax and sentence structure. Brain damage in this area leads to language disorders, i.e. patients still understand language, but it is nearly impossible for them to speak. On the contrary, brain damage in the Wernicke s area leads to a loss of speech comprehension. Patients are able to reproduce sounds and words, but they are not anymore capable of understanding the meaning of what they hear or pronounce. Both speech centres are very important as they enable conscious thinking, help us to sort and express thoughts and to attribute meaning to words. The location of the main speech areas in the left hemisphere led to the attribution dominant to the left side. In the 1960s, Roger Sperry, professor for neuropsychology and neurobiology at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, conducted split brain research by bisecting the corpus callosum and other cerebral commissures of patients in order to control intractable epilepsy. The term split brain signifies that the corpus callosum is severed or not existent.2 Sperry and his collegues found out that the separated hemispheres have different specialised abilities, the left is mainly related to language comprehension and production, whereas the right is mainly related to spatial perception (Pinel/Pauli 2007: 534). Thus, every hemisphere is specialized for a particular type of information processing which is less available to the other. Language is the cognitive ability which is lateralized the most. But even in this extrem case, this lateralization is far from being absolute. Also the right hemisphere controls important functions that are related to language. This means that although it may be true that the left hemisphere is dominant in processing linguistic stimuli, also the right hemisphere understands a lot of spoken and written words, simple phrases as well as metaphorical language. According to Hines, studies consistently showed that the right hemisphere could also handle linguistic tasks, only more slowly or with less accuracy (Hines 1987: 601). The 1 95% of all people have the Broca s and the Wernicke s area in the left brain hemisphere, but 5% have them in their right hemisphere. 2 There are people who are born without this connection between the left and right brain hemisphere. 26

27 brain functions in an integrated way under all circumstances. Whereas the left hemisphere in almost all right handers and most left handers is dominant for speech production, comprehension, semantics and syntax, the right hemisphere simultaneously deals with contextual issues, such as intonation, metaphor, humour and body language (Stander 2008). Both sides complement each other. Jerzy P. Szaflarski and his collegues from the University of Cincinnati found out that with increasing age the speech centre spreads more and more evenly to both hemispheres. From the age of 25 onwards, the speech concentration in one hemisphere diminishes, so that adults increasingly use both brain hemispheres for linguistic activities. Szaflarski ascribs this finding to the fact that with increasing age the performance of the speech centre decreases. According to his assumptions this loss is compensated by the partially outsourcing of speech functions into the other brain hemisphere (Stangl-Taller 2009a). Recapitulating: What truth is there to the cerebral dichotomy of functions? Taking into account what we learned before functional differences in brain functions exist, but they are rather small and far from being absolute we return to the question on which differences between the left and the right hemisphere of the brain can be outlined. Tabe 2 lists abilities that show a functional cerebral lateralization. All categories presented here have to be seen as tendency of dominance of one hemisphere over the other which doesn t necessarily have to be very distinct. This listing is clearly more differentiated than table 1. General functions seeing Left hemisphere dominance words letters hearing feel linguistic sounds movement complex movements ipsilateral movements verbal memory interpretation of memories speaking reading writing calculating memory speech spatial abilities Right hemisphere dominance faces geometric patterns emotional expression non-linguistic noises tactile pattern braille movement in spatial patterns non-verbal memory perceptional aspects of memories emotional content mental rotation of shapes geometry direction distance 27

28 Table 2: Abilites showing a functional cerebral lateralization Source: Table adapted and translated from Pinel/Pauli 2007: 543 It is true for most people that the left hemisphere of the brain is more dominant when it comes to logical, analytical thinking and verbalisation. The left cerebral hemisphere is responsible for talking, reading, writing, mathematics and calculations whereas the right hemisphere can verbalize its knowledge only in very limited ways. It relies more on imagery than on language and is more synthetic and holistic than analytic and sequential in handeling data. Both hemispheres are connected and exchange information constantly. One example mentioned frequently in popular scientific literature is a riddle that shall illustrate the interconnectedness of both cerebral hemispheres in an exhilarative way. Try to memorize the following story: Two legs sat upon three legs with one leg in his lap. In comes four legs, grabs one leg, and runs off with it. Up jumps two legs, grabs three legs, throws it after four legs, and makes him bring back one leg. It is said that this apparently absurd stringing together of abstract terms exclusively addresses the left side of the brain. Immediately after reading the text, the story is already forgotten. When the story is connected with images, the right hemisphere is activated as well, and the story becomes very easy to memorize. A man (two legs) sat upon a stool (three legs) with a chicken drumstick (one leg) in his lap. In comes a dog (four legs), grabs the chicken drumstick (one leg), and runs off with it. Up jumps the man (two legs), grabs the stool (three legs), throws it after the dog (four legs), and makes him bring back the chicken drumstick (one leg). Source: answerbag 2006 Example: Reading A relevant example in the context of language learning and teaching is reading. Numerous cortical subsystems are involved when a person is reading a text. General functions of logical processing are necessary in order to understand syntax, extrapolate meaning of complex relations and transform written words into their spoken form. But also the right hemisphere is important, it helps us to decode visual information, capture humour and emotional content, understand metaphors and extrapolate meaning on the basis of previous associations. In this example the close cooperation of both hemispheres becomes evident (Krebs 1998). 28

29 We see that the critisism mentioned early, namely that the prevailing education system is too much focused on the left hemisphere while neglecting the right, isn t that substantial. Both hemispheres interact in every thinking process which contradicts the notion of a constant unterdevelopment of the right hemisphere through school. However, there might be some truth behind the reproach that school has a tendency to encourage those abilities that are commonly associated with the left brain hemisphere (regardless of the fact whether these abilities really can be located exclusively in the left side of the brain). Raina who was cited before as one of the proponents of this notion outlines his perception of how the right brain hemisphere could be more integrated into educational practice. He writes: If education is to develop the other side of the brain, it should plan learning experiences which provide endless opportunities for a balance between the right hemisphere s spatial-synthetical modality and the left hemisphere s verbal-analytical modality. Such learning experience should be characterized by openness and comprehensiveness and should create a desire for knowledge and provide the learner with skills which will enable him to translate curiosity into action. It should enhance sensory awareness for exploring non-rational ways of knowing. (Raina 1979: 14) This leads us directly to the question of education. In the next chapter we are going to take a closer look on the implications of the neurologic and psychological findings on education, especially language learning and teaching. Understanding learning as a complex process Without our memory, learning would be impossible. We would repeat our mistakes (as well as the punishments related) endlessly, just as we wouldn t be able to learn from our successes and achievements (rewards). Reward and punishment are crucial factors when it comes to learning. They motivate us and learning presupposes deliberate motivation. We have to be motivated to revise the subject matter, so that the information proceeds from our short-term memory to the long-term memory. Another important factor is that the topic is relevant to the learners. Learning can be relevant when there is a connection to our current interests. If this is the case, our motivation usually is strong enough to work through the subject matter several times until we know it by heart. Interest and curiosity are probably the most important motivations for learning. If the learner is fascinated by a topic, it is quite easy for him/her to acquire knowledge. On the contrary, if he/she is indifferent, bored or overchallenged by a topic, learning becomes nearly impossible as it is difficult to maintain motivation until the information passes from short-term- to long-term memory (Krebs 1998: 144). Neurological insights 29

30 As should be clear by now, learning takes place in interaction of many interconnected cerebral subsystems. But how does information processing work in detail? Information is transmitted to the hippocampus and the amygdala. They exist both in the left and in the right cerebral hemisphere (symmetry). The hippocampus belongs to the limbic system and is the medially situated part of the cerembrum (telencephalos) where information from different sensorial systems converges and is then processed and sent back to the cortex. This is why the hippocampus is extremely important for memory consolidation, i.e. for stabilizing a memory trace by moving it from short-term to long-term memory. Patients who had both hippocampi damaged or removed, cannot form new memories. The hippocampus plays an important role in the formation of new memories as well as in spatial orientation. Picture 2. Source: Anonymous 2009 The amygdala also forms part of the limbic system and is central for emotional estimations, recognition of situations and the analysis of potential threats. It processes external impulses and initiates vegetative reactions. It can be said that the amygdala operates on a subconscious level. It connects situations and incidents to emotions and memorizes them. When learners had big problems in memorizing simple vocabulary or grammar rules in the past, every demand to learn new words or understand a grammatical problem might have a castigatory effect which makes the whole learning process really difficult. The reason is that the amygdala has associated language learning with punishment and is therefore going to initiate avoidance behaviour. In trying to justify this avoidance, the conscious and rational intellect tells the learners that they were too stupid or that language learning was boring and useless. That is how failure takes place (Krebs 1998: 145). On the other hand, when learners have always done well in language learning, the amygdala identifies a potential reward, thus contributing to easy learning processes and the search for new challenges findings of Social and Behavioural Sciences Another approach to human learning comes from the disciplines of social and behavioural sciences. Research conducted in this field deals with the structures and regularities that underlie human thinking and action. Social and behavioural sciences not only focus on the biological conditionality of learning, they also take into consideration 30

31 individual biographies, cultural traditions and institutional structures that influence and shape every learning process. There are always multiple factors and diverse dimensions that effect educational outcomes of learners. By considering this important fact, scientists are prevented from tapping into a biological determinism that ascribes every human action and decision exclusively to neurological and biological conditions. Thus, it can be said that research conducted in the disciplines of social and behavioural sciences is characterized by a broader, more inclusive perspective compared to research that solely approaches biological and neurological aspects of learning. Social and behavioural researchers pose questions like: What and how do people think? In what way does thinking depend on living conditions? How universal are the laws and structures that underlie human thinking and action? To what extent are humans determined by their biological nature and to what extent by their specific historic culture and their living conditions? Innumerable studies have shown that educational outcomes of students are determined by factors like language competencies, parental support, socioeconomic background, ethnical subculture, existence of role models, vocational and educational information, gender, school system, institutional obstacles, etc. For example, children are likely to inherit the low educational and vocational status of their parents. In Austria e.g., 52% of the pupils attain the same level of education than their parents, 26% manage to improve compared to their parents, whereas 22% attain an even lower level (Bacher et al. 2008). Thus, the parents educational attainment has a crucial impact on the educational paths of children. The higher the parents formal education, the longer children stay in the educational system (Weiss/Unterwurzacher 2007). Some social and behavioural approaches that seem important for innovative language learning of young Europeans would be the social constructivism and the social constructionism. The first refers to the individual s learning based on the interactions within a group whereas the latter refers to social interactions of groups to create artifacts. Piaget's theory can be seen as basis for the social constructivism; it says that individuals need to construct an understanding of the world for themselves, to such become active in their own learning. In adition to this, social constructivism sees the role of others as important in the development. The scholars After Piaget there have been many other researchers, like Vygotsky, to point out advantages that interactions between individuals can have in (language) learning. Collaborative learning, Vygotsky influenced, says that knowledge can be created within a group of members sharing experiences by their interactions, solving of common tasks like collaborative writing, joint problem solving and other. In class, this applies to both class mates, as well as teacher/trainer and learners. 31

32 Innovative measure should therefore include peer or group work, discussions, activities to generalize and transfer their knowledge from one another, to test and synthesise ideas amidst each other and understand what they are learning, to engage in selfdirected learning and reflection as on important methodological method. (Reznitskaya, Anderson & Kuo, 2007; Corden, 2001; Nystrand, 1996; Reznitskaya, Anderson & Kuo, 2007; Weber, Maher, Powell & Lee, 2008 and Corden, 2001; Matsumara, Slater & Crosson, 2008) Unfortunately, even latest observations reveal that learners have few chances in low socioeconomic schools to engage in discussions during the lessons (Corden, 2001; Nystrand, 1996; Weber, Maher, Powell & Lee, 2008). Good practice examples of the YELL project could offer innovative materials for such occasions. Some good practice examples found by the YELL project partnership that would be based on social interaction when young people learn foreign languages are: Theatre as a Mirror of Society (in Belgium) The project includes reading and rehearsal of a script, costume and decoration preparation, theatre performances, advertising, establishment of teams during the different stages of the project, making video-films for parts of the working process and of the final product, language course, organizing of exhibition, sightseeing, presentations of the different aspects of life in Bulgaria and Italy, presentations of Bulgarian and Italian writers, their epoch and style as well as presentations of the theatre art in both countries. Similar to this: learning a foreign language through drama or festivals in Latvia, From novel to play (The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-time) found in the Netherlands and Film or Writing Workshops in Spain. Walking and talking (found in Germany) Nordic walking course for young adults, in the same time participants train and speak e.g. in English under supervision of trainer. Walking in the forest, children with supervision of teacher go to the forest and learn about trees, animals, they play together. epals (found in Norway s good practice examples) one of the oldest and most robust online tools for promoting interaction between classrooms of students in multiple countries, with over a decade of history. It is still the largest global site for exchanges between classes and, as of 2009, over 210 Norwegian classrooms make use of epals, many of them explicitly for facilitating language study. It should be clear by now that social and behavioural sciences are characterized by an interdisciplinary approach that comprises different dimensions (biological individual social political economical cultural structural) of human existence. According to scholars it is important to consider both biological and socio-cultural aspects of cognitive 32

33 processes alike. Cognition is not merely a biological phenomenon but has been shaped by cultural habits and norms ever since Strategies of promoting successful learning processeses In this section different approaches are introduced that help to enhance and support human learning processes. First, we are going to take a look on strategies that increase students motivation for (language) learning. Both neurobiological and social/behavioural sciences emphasize the importance of motivation for successful learning processes. This leads us to the concept of holistic learning that is based on the notion of learning as a holistic maturing process of spirit, body and psyche. After outlining the main principles of holistic learning, the concept is applied to the example of language learning. Finally, as already announced in the introduction of this Handbook chapter, we are turning to the theory of learning types as popularized by the biochemist Frederic Vester in the 1970s. His approach was widely absorbed in educational practice, but also highly criticized by educational experts. This is why we are going to address the question what is really behind this theory. To conclude, Carl Roger s ten principles of learning are presented as they in some way summarize and complete the central statements of this chapter. Motivation As stated above, learning presupposes deliberate motivation. Scholars differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. In order to increase learner s motivation, the first step is to create a learning environment that comforts learners and supports learning processes rather than hindering them. According to Stangl-Taller (2009c) there are four central starting points in order to increase intrinsic motivation: Content: It is important to provide learners with the opportunity to determine the focus of instruction corresponding to their personal interests and agendas. Materials and media: Imparting knowledge in a creative, inventive, humorous or provocative way arouses curiosity and increases the pleasure of engagement. Activities: Learners tend to be more concentrated when they are actively involved in the lesson, e.g. when they can try something out, work on concrete problem solutions or engage in discussions. A conventional one-sided lecture tends to be detrimental to this issue. Environment: The learning environment needs to accommodate basic needs and shall be positively experienced. This includes sufficient space, pleasant room temperature, comfortable chairs, fresh air, etc. In addition, increasing the extrinsic motivation is equally important. It can be achieved by rewarding positive actions and achievements. What type of reward appears suitable (bonus points, praise, benefits), depends on the learning context and the target group. Some aspects deserve consideration in this context: 33

34 Structuring: The learning process is structured by rewarding separate working steps. It is important that learners recognize manageable subtasks and solve problems step-by-step. Prioritization: The quality of the reward depends on the relevance of the working steps for the entire learning process. This should help learners to avoid to dissipating their energies in minor aspects. Feedback: By connecting rewards to verifiable outputs, learners receive constant feedback about their state of knowledge and performance level. Students are aware of what they know and have learned instead of cherishing an illusion. As for the learners, it is also important to set realistic goals and identify strengths and deficiencies. By so doing, strategies can be developed that help to put goals into practice and progress can be monitored (Stangl-Taller 2009c). Holistic approaches to learning In cognitive processes, attentiveness and concentration play an important role. In order to improve awareness it is necessary to evoke associations and connotations. Consequentially, it is always helpful to activate and draw on existing knowledge when imparting new knowledge. Visual stimuli should be connected to linguistic codes. In general, it is important to put information and knowledge in a broader context instead of dealing with it in an isolated, incoherent way. The encouragement of joined-up thinking is an indispensable requirement for successful learning processes. The more senses are appealed to (by visual, auditive, tactile, olfactory, etc. stimuli), the better the brain can process, memorize and associate information. The biochemist and author Frederic Vester, who died in 2003, is still considered as the personification of joined-up thinking in some circles (Stangl-Taller 2009b). He promoted the principle of holistic thinking which is still applied in research, economy and education. However, Vester wasn t the first who recognized the importance of joined-up and holistic thinking for the mental development of children. As one of the first pedagogues Johann Amos Comenius ( ) pointed out that knowledge is based on sensory perception. The philosopher John Locke ( ) was on the opinion that nothing can be intellectually processed that hasn t been perceived before. And JeanJacques Rousseau ( ) dedicated a chapter of his famous novel Emile to the Exercise of organs and senses. The educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi ( ) coined the phrase thinking with head, heart and hand. Maria Montessori s lifework can also be seen in close connection to the concept of holistic learning (Liebertz 2001). Charmaine Liebertz from the German association for holistic learning (Gesellschaft für ganzheitliches Lernen e.v.) summarizes the key statements of holistic learning as follows: researching and discovering with joy and curiosity understanding and perceiving the world with all senses making own and concrete experiences 34

35 giving space for movement and exercise getting into balance with oneself and the environment fostering concentration and relaxation developing thinking structures fostering individuality and differentiated learning developing educational partnership and personal and co-responsibility learning with head, heart and hand (translated from Liebertz 2001) Learning is understood as a holistic maturing process of spirit, body and psyche. It is a process of constant interaction of sensual perceptions, mental and intellectual performance, motion sequences and feelings. Example: Language Learning Learning a foreign language becomes tediously if vocabulary and grammar are being drilled. In the 1970s, the so called communicative turn in foreign language didactics took place. Language teaching is now obliged to the educational objective of strengthening communication skills and encouraging the creative aspect of language usage. Another component becoming more and more important in this context is interculturality. All in all, language teaching doesn t primary aim at imparting knowledge, but at developing ability. However, according to Krista Segermann (2000) the complex set of rules and regulations that constitutes every language, above all the grammatical system, tends to hinder the application of creative methods at school. It is a common belief that basic linguistic knowledge such as fundamental grammar, lexis, phonetic and orthography skills has to be imparted first, before these skills can be applied in practice i.e. on a communicative level. On the basis of this belief teachers tend to introduce vocabulary and grammar exercises that are far from reality and have nothing to do with the current interests and needs of learners. However, this doesn t necessarily have to be the case as there are strategies and pilot projects that are dedicated to the testing of innovative methods of language teaching and learning. Segermann points out three principles of holistic language didactics that have been applied in a pilot project in a French class in Jena in 2000: Teachers focus on the thoughts, feelings, opinions and judgments of learners, on their knowledge and speculations about the world. This implicates the abandonment of given texts in school books. Teachers work with lexico-grammatical units. Grammar and lexis are integrated in order to give priority to the creative aspects of language. Students produce texts from the very beginning. The point is that these texts are based on the students own perceptions of reality. What becomes evident here is the constructionist approach behind these didactic principles. In the example presented by the author students wrote texts with regard to conversations with French students. The long-term perspective of meeting the students of their French partner 35

36 school and getting to know the country motivated them crucially. At first, students practiced with their own classmates, afterwards actual letters were exchanged with the partner school. In so doing, intercultural understanding is promoted from the very beginning. However, the intercultural component isn t implemented by reading texts offering intercultural knowledge that may not touch students feelings and interests (so called dead knowledge ), but by establishing contact to natives who share their realities with the students. Some good practice examples found by the YELL project partnership that could help language teachers in motivating their students/ learners and show how the development of other abilities can go hand in hand with language learning: Playful learning Mentioned as good practice example from Austria in which organisations provide theatre plays, events, courses, counselling, creative workshops along language courses to reach year olds, socially disadvantaged youths "Plan langues" in Belgium popular songs sung in English (or other languages) are pronounced by native speakers and simultaneously translated into French (learners mother tongue), broadcasted on important francophone radio channels (Pure fm, Classic 21). The songs, and interviews with the performing artists (video), are also published on the website, and in the newsletter Le Soir, and there are pages on Facebook and MySpace with subtitled interviews with artists. English Coffee (in Spain as: Café ingles) - Wednesday at 19h. This activity consist in a film projection. After the film a gathering in english is organised. Or In Life (En vivo) - Every two Tuesday at 21h. This activity consist in the organisation of a dinner based on tapas. After the dinner some activities an plays are organised for the students. Publication of a weekly on-line magazine El Eco, with news and activities offer for the week witch is sent by each Monday to the interested students. Learning types: What is really behind this theory? In this section the theory of different learning types is addressed. Already in 1971, Allan Paivio of the University of Western Ontario introduced his dual-coding theory. This cognition theory postulates the existence of two independently functioning cerebral systems of human information processing: the verbal system and the visual system. According to this theory, the verbal system transforms information in linguistic form. The visual system on the contrary, processes information in terms of cognitive imagery and spatial perception. As already stated before, some scientists relate the verbal system rather to the left brain hemisphere than to the right, whereas the right cerebral 36

37 hemisphere is said to host the imagery system. Paivio claimed that there are people who think more with the right hemisphere and others rather use the left hemisphere for information processing. However, this theory doesn t really stand closer examination. As Stangl-Taller points out spatial perception doesn t exist independently from verbal knowledge. In addition, it is less a question of personality than of context (e.g. the problem we have to solve), if we think in language or images. Above all, nobody thinks with just one side of the brain. In the 1970s, Frederic Vester popularized biological research about learning processes, most notably with his publication Thinking, Learning, Forgetting (1975). His theory was widely absorbed by educationists and the media. He postulated that during learning processes different perceptual channels are appealed. Consequently it would be crucial to find out the individual s dominant learning channel in order to improve the effectiveness of learning. Vester differentiated between four learning types: the auditive, visual, haptic and intellectual learning type. However, only three out of four learning types are characterized by perception as the fourth type applies to the cognitive process itself. This suggests that the intellect isn t really important for the other three learning types. Cognitive sciences however, didn t find any scientific evidence for the existence of these learning types (Stangl-Taller 2009b). Nevertheless, similar theories are still widely applied in educational practice. Innumerable educational guidebooks present a variety of categorizations of learning types, such as: visual auditive audio-visual haptic olfactory abstract-verbal contact-oriented person-oriented medium-oriented etc. According to guidance literature, in reality only mixtures of learning types exist. However, they also claim that visual learning types are favoured by the traditional education system as visual and written tasks, quick information reception and processing (blackboard, overhead, books, taking notes) dominate. Conclusion of this Handbook chapter The US-American psychologist and psychotherapist Carl Ransom Rogers is known for his person-centred approach to understanding personality and human relationships. He also engaged in questions of learning and teaching and formulated 10 principles of learning 37

38 that are quoted below as they in some way summarize and complete what was elaborated before. 1. Human beings have a natural potential for learning. 2. Significant learning takes place when the subject matter is perceived by the student as having relevance for his/her own purposes, when the individual has a goal he/she wishes to achieve and sees the material presented to him/her as relevant to the goal, learning takes place with great rapidity. 3. Learning which involves a change in self-organization - in the perception of oneself is threatening and tends to be resisted. 4. Those learnings which are threatening to the self are more easily perceived and assimilated when external threats are at a minimum. 5. When the threat to the self is low, experience can be perceived in differentiated fashion and learning can proceed. 6. Much significant learning is acquired through doing. 7. Learning is facilitated when the student participates responsibly in the learning process. 8. Self-initiated learning which involves the whole person of the learner _ feeling as well as intellect _ is the most lasting and pervasive. 9. Independence, creativity and self-reliance are all facilitated when self-criticism and self-evaluation are basic and evaluation by others is of secondary importance. 10. The most socially useful learning in the modern world is the learning of the process of learning, a continuing openness to experience and to incorporate into oneself the process of change. Source: Zimring 1999 (quoted after: Stangl-Taller 2009d) One of the basic questions we have to ask ourselves is: What does learning mean? It can be doubted that learning is just a process of storing knowledge in people. Learning also has to do a lot with relationship. Teachers are required to create an atmosphere of mutual trust and respect so that learners can develop their abilities and grow with the tasks they accomplish. Negative feelings like anxiety, concern or disinclination hinder effective learning processes. Also stress minimizes learning outputs. This is why a positive emotional connection to the subject and content is extremely important. Conventional methods don t prove very effective in this context as they promote a strict role allocation between students and teachers. The teacher imparts knowledge, the students passively absorb knowledge. By contrast, innovative approaches to language teaching and learning some of which where presented in this chapter meet the needs and interests of learners thus having the potential to become fascinated by language and activate their learning efforts. 38

39 Bibliography abif analyse beratung und interdisziplinäre forschung et al. (o.j): Sich etwas einprägen Welche Gehirnhälfte dominiert? (access: 13/01/10) answerbag (2006): Riddle. (access: 04/02/10) Bacher, Johann et al. (2008): Theoretische Vorüberlegungen und Hintergrundinformationen. In: Bacher, Johann; Beham, Martina; Lachmayer, Norbert (Hg.): Geschlechterunterschiede in der Bildungswahl. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Corden, R.E. (2001). Group discussion and the importance of a shared perspective: Learning from collaborative research. Qualitative Research, 1(3), Hines, Terence (1987): Left Brain/Right Brain Mythology and Implications for Management and Training. In: Academy of Management Review, Vol. 12, No. 4., Liebertz, Charmaine (2001): Warum ist ganzheitliches Lernen wichtig? (access: 15/01/10) Matsumura, L.C., Slater, S.C., & Crosson, A. (2008). Classroom climate, rigorous instruction and curriculum, and students interactions in urban middle schools. The Elementary School Journal, 108(4), Nystrand, M. (1996). Opening dialogue: Understanding the dynamics of language and learning in the English classroom. New York: Teachers College Press. Pinel, John P.J.; Pauli, Paul (2007): Biopsychologie. 6., aktualisierte Auflage. München u.a.: Pearson Education. Raina, Maharaj (1979): Education of the left and the right. In: International Review of Education, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp Reznitskaya, A., Anderson, R.C., & Kuo, L. (2007). Teaching and learning argumentation, The Elementary School Journal, 107(5), Stander, Leon (2008): Mind myth 2: Left brain right brain. rlkrlpi/aaaaaaaaad8/hpwqsrgeyei/s320/left-brain-rightbrain.jpg&imgrefurl= ajo6c20rjnpluogs7rz0phsawrs=&h=320&w=302&sz=30&hl=de&sta rt=30&um=1&tbnid=uo52c-ns8vxxm:&tbnh=118&tbnw=111&prev=/images%3fq%3dleft%2bright%2bhemisphere%26n dsp%3d21%26hl%3dde%26sa%3dn%26start%3d21%26um%3d1 (access: 15/01/10) 39

40 Stangl-Taller, Werner (2009a): Gehirn und Sprache. (access: 15/01/10) Stangl-Taller, Werner (2009b): Lerntypentheorie eine Kritik. (access: 15/01/10) Stangl-Taller, Werner (2009c): Lernmotive und Lernmotivation. (access: 15/01/10) Stangl-Taller, Werner (2009d): Begriffsdefinitionen Lernen. (access: 15/01/10) Weber, K., Maher, C., Powell, A., & Lee, H.S. (2008). Learning opportunities from group discussions: Warrants become the objects of debate. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 68 (3), Weiss, H. and Unterwurzacher, A. (2007): Soziale Mobilität durch Bildung? Bildungsbeteiligung von MigrantInnen, in H. Fassmann (ed.) 2. Österreichischer Migrations- und Integrationsbericht Klagenfurt: Drava, pp Zimring, Fred (1999): Carl Rogers. (access: 15/01/10) Pictures: Anonymous, Aimee (2009): Anxiety and our Brains Part 4. The limbic system. (access: 15/01/10) VaXzine (2008): Left Brain Right Brain. _0ea2c025f4.jpg&imgrefurl= awkx9xhcsmxzc4qj7tnlywrubie=&h=469&w=443&sz=106&hl=de&start=18&um=1& tbnid=pmvniq7hkgfeqm:&tbnh=128&tbnw=121&prev=/images%3fq%3dleft%2bright %2Bhemisphere%26hl%3Dde%26sa%3DG%26um%3D1 (access: 13/01/10) Disclaimer: This project has been funded with support from the European Commission. Grant agreement number / Life long Learning Programme, Transversal Programme, Key Activity 2 - Languages This communication reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein 40

41 2.3 Ideas on possible networks An increasingly global economy and multicultural society are affecting our everyday lives, and it is important that we adapt to the changes that accompany such growth. One of the most prevalent and public challenges we deal with is the language, or perhaps languages, with which we conduct our day-to-day affairs. When starting an innovative language learning project it is quite advisable to use networks to create interest or disseminate ideas. It could be the language teacher s pedagogical interest groups in your area, friends that could be involved in testing courses, it could be a facebook group/network, or online language learning community/forums, tourism organisations etc. Native speakers of the different languages can most likely be found somewhere in your area, either as permanent residents or as tourists. One idea can be to put up an ad with your local tourist bureau, where one can act as free local guides practising the language you are learning. Another idea is to contact some of the institutions giving courses in your native language to foreigners and volunteer to practise your language with them, and they will help you practise their own language. Other possibilities include ; signing up for a pen pal, a voice chat community, text chat community, skype talk or similar web based resources. Changes Since the 1960ies language teachers have witnessed a dramatic change in the way languages are taught. The focus of instruction has broadened from the teaching of discrete grammatical structures to the fostering of communicative abilities. Creative self expression has become more important than simply reciting a memorized dialog from a book. Comprehension and communication has taken on a new importance, and culture has also been put in focus. The old language lab has gradually been replaced by media centres, and computer based language learning. Networks can be one of many useful ways to enhance the language learning in innovative projects. One network based language learning system is a computer based network, where students link up their computers in either local (internal) or global (external) network. Traditionally the computer based language learning (CALL) consisted of tutorials, simulations, games, tests and so on. With a network the human to human communication is the focus. 41

42 2.4 How to generate publicity about language learning The current literature of psychology and business is filled with the term "stakeholder". A stakeholder is an active participant in an organization if his or her voice is heard by those in authority and one that has implications for the classroom. Stakeholders can also be people outside the learning environment who is responsible for education policies etc Publicity This is the communication that a post produces or attempts to get in connection with an event or activity. Publicity can be in the form of a talk, special event, dinner, demonstration, exhibit, interview, conference, news story, feature story, or photo essay. The list is limited only by each post imagination and industriousness. One useful way of gaining publicity would be to set up a small table with information and an opportunity to test different language learning somewhere in the city centre on a Saturday. A very carefully planned event where the combination of such an event as mentioned above and inviting the press could gain double publicity. In general it is very useful to use your own network through facebook, linkedin or similar to disseminate the idea of language learning to other potential participants Using News Releases to Gain Publicity News releases from organizations, business firms, and public relations agencies are a vital part of any newspaper. To submit a press release to your local newspaper about your activities in general could be rewarded with an article on the topic Using Exhibits to Generate Publicity Exhibits, including displays and demonstrations at different events or fairs, are a useful publicity tool. Exhibition spaces are common in shopping malls and office buildings; many opportunities exist for a post to be creative and imaginative in setting up an exhibit Publicity in connection with language learning- specifically There are a number of ideas on how to get the right publicity for language learning. Now that social media has taken over much of the focus of young people from newspapers and magazines, the best idea is to initiate a Facebook site on the language learning issue. The focus should be on topics of interest to the youngsters such as fashion, cars, artists, computer related issues etc. In addition to a Facebook site a blog could be opened, again with a focus on language learning opportunities and ideas for young people or their youth leaders. The focus must again be on topics of interest. When someone discovers these sites, the youth will tag them and notify their friends about these places, and then again other friends will notify their friends, and the exploitation possibilities of these sites will multiply quite much in a short time Most youth clubs, non governmental organisations within sports or culture also have a web site, blog or facebook site. An idea is to ask these organisations to post information about 42

43 courses or initiatives on their sites or link to the dedicated special sites where youth can find information. Since digital media is the preferred option, another effective way is to create a podcast or mini video with a humorous content that promotes the informal language learning initiatives. This can be uploaded onto youtube or the school s site for further spreading from there. Within the European Union the programme initiative called Youth in Action can be used to create a project where lots of youth from Europe are invited to a language learning fair where activities and language learning goes hand in hand. Here again the focus could be on different topics of special interest or on a theme decided beforehand as the main theme for all. Such initiatives often get publicity in the local press when many youth from different countries are gathered. Free publicity and lots of attention to informal language learning initiatives will be the result. 43

44 2.5 How to set up assessment and monitoring of learning results Learning to communicate in another language takes a long time. It is one of the most challenging tasks students are likely to undertake, and they can easily become discouraged and bored with it. To become engaged learners, students need to understand that learning a language is not the same as learning about a language. When students think of the language as a school subject like any other, they may learn a great deal about its vocabulary, grammar, and sentence and discourse structure, but the language will not become a true medium of communication for them and won't engage them very deeply. Students need to understand that learning a language means becoming able to use it to comprehend, communicate, and think as they do in their first language. Students also need to recognize that language learning takes place in stages. Interpretive skills (listening, reading) develop much more quickly than expressive skills (speaking, writing), and the ability that students covet most the ability to speak the second language fluently requires the longest period of growth. All language learners have to work through a sequence of "approximate" versions called interlanguages3 (ILs), each of which represents a level of understanding of the target language. Understanding the features of ILs can help teachers and learners understand and monitor the language learning process. Uniqueness: ILs vary significantly from learner to learner in the early stages of language learning. Learners impose rules of their own on the oral and written input they receive. Each learner does this differently, combining emerging understanding of the rules of the new language with ideas derived from the first language and other information that comes from their individual situations and backgrounds. Systematic character: As learners begin to develop proficiency in a language, they make errors in systematic ways. For example, once students learn the inflections for a single class of verbs, they may apply them to all classes indiscriminately. These errors are based on systematic assumptions, or false rules, about the language. When students become aware of 3 An interlanguage or, more explicitly, interim language is an emerging linguistic system that has been developed by a learner of a second language (or L2) who has not become fully proficient yet but is approximating the target language: preserving some features of their first language (or L1), or overgeneralizing target language rules in speaking or writing the target language and creating innovations. An interlanguage is idiosyncratically based on the learners' experiences with the L2. It can fossilize in any of its developmental stages. The interlanguage rules are shaped by: L1 transfer, transfer of training, strategies of L2 learning (e.g. simplification), strategies of L2 communication (or communication strategies like circumlocution), and overgeneralization of the target language patterns. 44

45 this aspect of their language skill development, they often appreciate and even ask for overt error correction from the teacher4. Fossilization: Some false rules become more firmly imprinted on the IL than others and are harder for learners to overcome. Fossilization results when these false rules become permanent features of a learner's use of the language. Convergence: As learners' rules come to approximate more closely those of the language they are learning, convergence sets in. This means that learners who come from different native language backgrounds make similar assumptions and formulate similar hypotheses about the rules of the new language, and therefore make similar errors. Teachers can help students understand the process of language skill development in several ways. a. Focus on interlanguage as a natural part of language learning; remind them that they learned their first language this way. b. Point out that the systematic nature of interlanguage can help students understand why they make errors. They can often predict when they will make errors and what types of errors they will make. c. Keep the overall focus of the classroom on communication, not error correction. Use overt correction only in structured output activities. d. Teach students that mistakes are learning opportunities. When their errors interfere with their ability to communicate, they must develop strategies for handling the misunderstanding that results. To maintain the attitude that mistakes are a natural part of learning, will create a supportive environment where students are willing to try to use the language even though their mastery of forms is imperfect. Despite the current rapid growth of interest in independent learning among language teachers, little attention has been paid to the assessment of independent learning. The focus of debates over independent learning take a decided philosophical and ideological tone; it is taken for granted that independent learning is "a good thing," releasing learners from the tyranny of the teacher and the classroom. There are few studies of the impact of independent learning programmes over time. 4 In this context teacher is used without distinction to indicate also trainer, educator, youth worker and so on, that is each profession dealing with helping someone to learn something. 45

46 The lack of assessment of progress in independent learning is not difficult to explain. Firstly, it is unusual for learners on independent learning programmes to be denied access to teachers entirely, or some form of teacher-fronted classroom contact. Rather, the independent learning centre (or "self-access centre") is used to reduce teacher contact time. This is a shift in programme structure, rather than a radical change. It is therefore difficult to isolate just how much "learning" can be attributed to independent study, and how much to teacher-fronted classes. If, for example, ESL (English as Second Language) learners in the UK are considered, there is also the additional variable of "incidental learning" from the environment. Secondly, it is difficult to design instruments that are sensitive to small gains in language learning, and the types of programmes delivered in Universities are often over relatively short periods of time. If we find it difficult to measure language gain over short periods, it is even more difficult to identify where any measurable gain might originate. To add to these problems, there is the question of whether learning should be assessed in terms of product: what the learner is able to do at the end of a learning programme, or whether learning should be seen in terms of process : how the learner tackles tasks within an independent learning programme. Looking at process may include some evaluation of the "difference" between a starting and finishing point, but may simply be an assessment of the amount of effort, diligence and growth in the "ability to learn" independently. If one takes the latter view, any assessment other than the qualitative and subjective view of the language learning assistant or officer may be unnecessary. But that would only do for nonaward bearing programmes. However, assessment is also important in order to express the element of "value added" that independent learning is claimed to bring. Is it the case that learners make (more) progress when provided with self-access facilities? Only if this question can be answered can we address the issue of "value added" and at the same time understand what it is we are able to meaningfully assess in an award-bearing independent language learning programme. Actively involving students in their own learning and focusing on how to teach students to become more independent learners is a major educational goal in most European countries. The Council of Europe's aim with the Common European Framework of Reference on language learning, teaching and assessment was to identify and describe the diversity and characteristics of language learning in Europe. With an expected increase in workforce mobility, it recognised the need for language learners to acquire communicative language skills; that is to be able to understand and use written and spoken language in a satisfactory manner. These skills include not only formal linguistic goals such as improved pronunciation, better command of vocabulary etc but also social and cultural language skills, as well as the ability to use different compensatory communicative strategies (like paraphrasing) when linguistic means are inadequate. 46

47 Formal or traditional language testing is seldom used as the sole instrument for placement, diagnosis, and measuring achievement outside the educational bodies. Instead, language assessment is becoming increasingly more authentic and direct as it involves students in tasks that they would normally be involved in, for example in everyday communicative activities at their workplace; expressing opinions, giving information, asking and answering questions, creating meaning while reading and listening, writing reports and so on. The assessment in such situations is ongoing and instructive, formative as well as summative, process-focused rather than product-focused. Or, in the words of Gipps5, "Assessment is becoming part of and a way to support the learning and teaching process." Language learning, as any type of learning, can only occur if the experience of the learner is engaged and capitalized on. Every experience is potentially an opportunity for learning, but it does not necessarily lead to learning if there is no active involvement from within the student. Every learner, at his or her present stage of development, has an inner area of awareness of what he or she already knows and can do. Skills not yet acquired remain "at a distance" from the learner, either because they may seem irrelevant to the learner or because the experience is unknown. Learning takes place in the intermediate space between the two fields when the spheres of familiar and unfamiliar knowledge touch. Self-assessment plays an important role in helping the student extract meaning from the new experience and also helps him or her to reach an optimal level of performance6. Misunderstandings due for example to any type of language error-formal, cultural or social-will hopefully lead to increased motivation to learn to avoid making the same sort of mistake in the future. When handing in an assignment or after having sat an examination, most students ask themselves if they have succeeded in relation to what they think has been asked of them, but self-assessment (or self-evaluation) in this context is more systematic. It is both a process and an activity. It is the ability to be a realistic judge of one's own performance and to be able to monitor or check one's own learning. Such self- monitoring is an instance of the psychological process of metacognition; the awareness of and the ability to reflect on one's own learning. It represents the learner's knowledge about his or her own thoughts and the factors that influence his or her thinking and understanding. The use of self-assessment practices in the classroom helps to develop these skills and also helps promote the learners' responsibility for their own learning. It encourages learners to take charge of their own learning, to become autonomous learners instead of relying on their teachers or peers for judgement and extrinsic motivation in the form of grades or general praise. The possible teacher's role becomes one of challenge and support. Instead of teaching general course objectives, the teacher needs to help students find learning material and learning situations 5 GIPPS C.V., Beyond Testing: Towards a Theory of Educational Assessment, The Falmer Press, 1994; see also HAMBLIN A.C., Evaluation and control of training, McGraw-Hill, London, VYGOTSKY, L.S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press. 47

48 at just the right level to enhance their development. The experience should not be totally predictable. The learners' previous experience should be challenged in a way, which allows them to reassess their assumptions. By asking the students to assess their own learning, the teacher promotes autonomy by training them to become aware of their learning processes. This helps the students internalise the required criteria for acceptable performance both with regard to the curriculum and real life situations, and leads to a more realistic view of their actual skills. If the student is aware of certain language structures or social rules of usage for example, he or she will be more prone to notice these features in the language input he or she is exposed to and is therefore more likely to learn them. Research has shown that a major difference between effective and less effective learners is the ability to self-correct and it is therefore an important issue in language learning. The process of learning to learn, including how to set goals and to self-assess, provides learners with opportunities to take responsibility for and make decisions about their own learning concerning what is good, what needs to be improved and what needs to be focused on next. Students with a variety of learning styles are helped, as they become aware of how they learn best. Some students for example learn new vocabulary best through writing the words in sentences and giving explanations, others prefer to make songs or stories out of them while yet others read and translate. In this way, self-knowledge and self-confidence is enhanced as students learn to apply metacognitive strategies to improve their language learning skills. Through this process, students are empowered to become partners with their teacher in making decisions that direct and stimulate their own learning. "Access to metacognitive processes for pupils can come from a process of guided or negotiated selfassessment, in which the pupil gains awareness of his/her own learning strategies and efficiency"7. There are many other methods, which also help to develop the students' cognitive development and learning process. Some are other forms of teacher assessment like conferences, where the teacher and student together discuss the student's learning process in connection with some piece of work, and portfolios where the student's collection of work is in focus for learning and assessment. Furthermore, Peer assessment and group assessment involve other students in reflecting and rating the student's performance and work. All forms of assessment are important but when working with different language learning projects such as task-based learning and problem based learning (PBL) that fall outside of the "traditional" classroom methods, traditional assessment in the form of teacher made tests and examinations, can only fulfil one part of the total learning and assessment process. As some forms of evaluation give no scope for improvement, they are 7 GIPPS, quoted. 48

49 not consistent with the PBL philosophy which for instance aims to help the student focus on the function of his or her own work, the causes behind mistakes made and consequently specific, new learning objectives. Research suggests that learners, who have passed the beginners' level, can assess their own learning as accurately as by means of other methods of assessment. Though subjective, selfassessment can also cover certain areas which traditional testing techniques normally, or always, leave out, (for very natural reasons). An example is the ability to function in real-life language situations. However, some things which may influence the students' ability to evaluate their own language learning are their interpretation of what is to be evaluated, their language learning background and experience and their self esteem. Students from cultures where it is not acceptable to praise oneself may score lower on a self-assessment rating than when ranked by peers or teachers. Gender research in this area seems to be inconclusive. Task based learning and problem-based learning depends on the students taking responsibility and being actively involved in the learning process. It seems impossible for the students to work in this way without acquiring a certain skill in autonomous and continuous evaluation of their own results. When working with the PBL model or with task oriented learning it is obviously quite important that the final evaluation of the end product does not come until the end of the learning process. Grading, for example, should not take place during group sessions or student presentations as may be done otherwise. Regular selfassessment practices through questionnaires or conferences during the project period, on the other hand, should increase the students' awareness of how and what they are doing. A growing awareness of procedures and effects will increase their competence and confidence as students. During the process, positive and negative judgement should be avoided in favour of a dialogue between teacher and students. Teachers' general judgements have a tendency to reinforce the students' dependence on their teachers' opinion and value extrinsic judgement about their work too highly. A discussion giving specific information or highlighting a specific learning aim will instead reinforce student competence and the intrinsic motivation to learn. Once autonomous, the learner can regard or disregard any feedback as either helpful or irrelevant to his or her own learning process. Different students will interpret the same events in different ways so standardised selfassessment tasks that do not involve communication between learner and others (teacher or peers) should be used cautiously in the initial phases of learning. Self-assessment tasks should instead be directed towards those aspects which are central to the overall learning outcomes desired, for example the specific goals and objectives of the language course or the specific task or PBL "case" worked on. These should be given to the students not only at the end but also at the beginning of a course, and then continuously throughout the course, 49

50 to make self-reflection a habit and to help the learners develop an awareness of the goals that have been established, and also of their own progress towards those goals. Other forms of continuous practices in the learning environment to promote self-reflection for both teachers and students are diaries, learning journals and learning logs where reflections on teaching and learning are recorded, portfolio-work and conferences. More introspective materials to promote the learner's ability to estimate what he or she understands about his or her own language learning are questionnaires on different language strategies used by individuals and/or in the group. Some examples of strategies that learners use are "to transform a foreign word in an English one" i.e. when for example learners of English cannot find the English word they are looking for and therefore use a word in their own language, pronounced in an English manner, hoping to come close, paraphrasing by using other words and giving definitions and descriptions, literal translations of words and expressions into the other language, and generalisations and approximations, e.g. using words like "thing" and "stuff" instead of specific words. (A "wood anemone" becomes "a flower.") Peer evaluation of written and oral presentations, especially those which give immediate feed-back indicating whether the communicative goals have been reached and whether the learner's work input has been satisfactory, may sometimes be experienced by the student as less judgmental and more directly informative than the teacher's comments. A feature of any learning activity that promotes self-reflection is that learners feel they are involved in a task geared towards learning and that is designed to allow significant elements of choice. Regular self-evaluation questions as part of a traditional teacher made test and a conscious focus on learning and teaching others in individual project work may be a way to start. Goal setting is an ideal strategy for guiding students to become more cognizant of their strengths, their instructional needs and the course their learning needs to take. To promote goal setting and achievement, students must first learn to critically examine their work, to judge it against some standard they understand and perhaps have even helped to develop. Once they have this understanding they can decide what aspects of their work to improve and make decisions about their own learning. Some sources of support when setting self-assessment goals are the following: - national and local curricula and/or syllabuses, which can and should be studied and analysed by both students and teachers. What do the students feel that they can do and to what degree? What do they need to learn? The students can also respond to or fill in especially made questionnaires which reflect the goals that the group or/and the individual 50

51 students have agreed on with their studies; - authentic situations, for example taking care of a foreign guest and which require a certain level of language competence, are a good measure but may be difficult to arrange in a formal learning situation. Role-play or dramatisations, which demand a command of certain language structures and formulas, and knowledge of certain social and cultural conventions, may be easier to arrange to give added insight. (For example job interviews, meeting your girl-friend s/boyfriend s parents for the first time etc); - group discussions within a PBL framework, or the giving and receiving of information in pairs or between groups; - tests and/or essays that are marked and evaluated by the students themselves and/or by their peers. In PBL, students should be actively involved in decision making (the what and the how), and work at a high level of co-operation. Students are here confronted with problematic situations (cases) in which they have to define their learning objectives, plan their own learning strategy to address the problem and assess to what extent they have achieved their objectives. Instead of relying on the teacher, students can become more sensitive to their own needs when developing their own focus. They have the opportunity to acquire the skills necessary to determine if their work meets with their expectations and as a result, learn how to set reasonable goals. This process leads to the ability to determine what is good work in any given situation, inside or outside the classroom. The students should be able to answer the question: What can I do now that I couldn't do before? In the planning of any self-directed learning it is important to: - raise the learner s awareness of his or her state of knowledge and/or language ability at any given time - help the learner set realistic and worthwhile objectives - select appropriate materials - use self-assessment practices In conclusion, self-assessment may contribute to: - shared assessment responsibility and more active student involvement, - the increased willingness of learners to use the target language, - a higher level of language learning awareness and deeper, intrinsically motivated approaches to learning, - better descriptions of goals for teaching and learning, - and through reflective practices, an emphasis on student autonomy and an increased ability to learn how to learn languages. 51

52 When the successful language learner is one who can pass tests and make good grades, learning about the language is all that is required and success is defined by mastery of rules and forms. When the successful language learner is one who has the ability to use the language to accomplish communication goals, success is defined as making the language one's own. To promote engagement in language learning it s important to: - encourage students to use the language spontaneously to communicate ideas, feelings, and opinions; - identify informal out-of-class language learning experiences; - ask students to evaluate their progress in terms of increases in their functional proficiency. Students' motivation for learning a language increases when they see connections between what they do in the classroom and what they hope to do with the language in the future. Their attention increases when classroom activities are relevant to their other interests. A good way of making language instruction relevant and interesting to students is to find out what topics they are studying, or are interested in, and draw materials for reading and discussion from those fields, remembering that reading and discussion do not always have to be about serious issues or academic topics. Students enjoy talking about movies and television programs, vacation plans, famous people, and other popular culture topics. If students' interest begins to fade it s better to drop a topic and ask them to suggest alternatives. When students know that they have some control over what they do in the language classroom, they take ownership as engaged learners. Students learning a language have two kinds of knowledge working for them: - their knowledge of their first language; - their awareness of learning strategies, the mechanisms they use, consciously or unconsciously, to manage the absorption of new material. Students differ as language learners in part because of differences in ability, motivation, or effort, but a major difference lies in their knowledge about and skill in using "how to learn" techniques, that is, learning strategies. Various research demonstrates the role of learning strategies in effective language learning: - good learners are able to identify the best strategy for a specific task; poor learners have difficulty choosing the best strategy for a specific task; - good learners are flexible in their approach and adopt a different strategy if the first one doesn t work; poor learners have a limited variety of strategies in their repertoires and stay with the first strategy they have chosen even when it doesn t work; 52

53 - good learners have confidence in their learning ability; poor learners lack confidence in their learning ability; - good learners expect to succeed, fulfil their expectation, and become more motivated; poor learners: expect to do poorly, fulfil their expectation, and lose motivation. One way to make sure students understand this type of evaluation is to give students a practice session with it. The teacher provides a sample writing or speaking assignment. As a group, students determine what should be assessed and how criteria for successful completion of the communication task should be defined. Then the teacher gives students a sample completed assignment. Students assess this using the criteria they have developed, and determine how to convey feedback clearly to the fictitious student. Students can also benefit from using rubrics or checklists to guide their assessments. At first these can be provided by the teacher; once the students have more experience, they can develop them themselves. An example of a peer editing checklist for a writing assignment is given in the popup window. Notice that the checklist asks the peer evaluator to comment primarily on the content and organization of the essay. It helps the peer evaluator focus on these areas by asking questions about specific points, such as the presence of examples to support the ideas discussed. For peer evaluation to work effectively, the learning environment must be supportive. Students must feel comfortable and trust one another in order to provide honest and constructive feedback. Teachers who use group work and peer assessment frequently can help students develop trust by forming them into small groups early in the semester and having them work in the same groups throughout the term. This allows them to become more comfortable with each other and leads to better peer feedback. Students can become better language learners when they engage in deliberate thought about what they are learning and how they are learning it. In this kind of reflection, students step back from the learning process to think about their language learning strategies and their progress as language learners. Such self assessment encourages students to become independent learners and can increase their motivation. The successful use of student self assessment depends on three key elements: - goal setting; - guided practice with assessment tools; - portfolios. Goal setting is essential because students can evaluate their progress more clearly when they have targets against which to measure their performance. In addition, students' 53

54 motivation to learn increases when they have self-defined, and therefore relevant, learning goals. At first, students tend to create lofty long-range goals ("to speak Russian)" that do not lend themselves to self assessment. They should be helped to develop realistic, short-term, attainable goals. Students do not learn to monitor or assess their learning on their own; they need to be taught strategies for self monitoring and self assessment. Techniques for teaching students these strategies are parallel to those used for teaching learning strategies. The teacher models the technique (use of a checklist or rubric, for example); students then try the technique themselves; finally, students discuss whether and how well the technique worked and what to do differently next time. In addition to checklists and rubrics for specific communication tasks, students can also use broader self-assessment tools to reflect on topics they have studied, skills they have learned, their study habits, and their sense of their overall strengths and weaknesses. An example of such a tool appears in the popup window. Students can share their self-assessments with a peer or in a small group, with instructions that they compare their impressions with other criteria such as test scores, teacher evaluations, and peers' opinions. This kind of practice helps students to be aware of their learning. It also informs the teacher about students' thoughts on their progress, and gives the teacher feedback about course content and instruction. Portfolios are purposeful, organized, systematic collections of student work that tell the story of a student's efforts, progress, and achievement in specific areas. The student participates in the selection of portfolio content, the development of guidelines for selection, and the definition of criteria for judging merit. Portfolio assessment is a joint process for teacher and student. Portfolio assessment emphasizes evaluation of students' progress, processes, and performance over time. There are two basic types of portfolios: - a process portfolio serves the purpose of classroom-level assessment on the part of both the teacher and the student. It most often reflects formative assessment, although it may be assigned a grade at the end of the semester or academic year. It may also include summative types of assignments that were awarded grades; - a product portfolio is more summative in nature. It is intended for a major evaluation of some sort and is often accompanied by an oral presentation of its contents. For example, it may be used as a evaluation tool for graduation from a program or for the purpose of seeking employment. 54

55 In both types of portfolios, emphasis is placed on including a variety of tasks that elicit spontaneous as well as planned language performance for a variety of purposes and audiences, using rubrics to assess performance, and demonstrating reflection about learning, including goal setting and self and peer assessment. Alternative assessment uses activities that reveal what students can do with language, emphasizing their strengths instead of their weaknesses. Alternative assessment instruments are not only designed and structured differently from traditional tests, but are also graded or scored differently. Because alternative assessment is performance based, it helps teachers emphasize that the point of language learning is communication for meaningful purposes. Alternative assessment methods work well in learner-centred environment because they are based on the idea that students can evaluate their own learning and learn from the evaluation process. These methods give learners opportunities to reflect on both their linguistic development and their learning processes (what helps them learn and what might help them learn better). Alternative assessment thus gives teachers a way to connect assessment with review of learning strategies. These are the features of alternative assessment: - assessment is based on authentic tasks that demonstrate learners' ability to accomplish communication goals; - teacher and learners focus on communication, not on right and wrong answers; - learners help to set the criteria for successful completion of communication tasks; - learners have opportunities to assess themselves and their peers. Successful use of alternative assessment depends on using performance tasks that let students demonstrate what they can actually do with language. Fortunately, many of the activities that take place in communicative environment lend themselves to this type of assessment. These activities replicate the kinds of challenges, and allow for the kinds of solutions, that learners would encounter in communication outside the learning environment. The following criteria define authentic assessment activities: - they are built around topics or issues of interest to the students - they replicate real-world communication contexts and situations - they involve multi-stage tasks and real problems that require creative use of language rather than simple repetition - they require learners to produce a quality product or performance - their evaluation criteria and standards are known to the student 55

56 - they involve interaction between assessor (teacher, peers, self) and person assessed - they allow for self-evaluation and self-correction as they proceed With alternative assessment, students are expected to participate actively in evaluating themselves and one another. Learners who are used to traditional teacher-centred classrooms have not been expected to take responsibility for assessment before and may need time to adjust to this new role. Teachers need to prepare students for the use of alternative assessments and allow time to teach them how to use them, so that alternative assessment will make an effective contribution to the learning process. - introduce alternative assessment gradually while continuing to use more traditional forms of assessment. Begin by using checklists and rubrics yourself; move to self and peer evaluation later. - create a supportive classroom environment in which students feel comfortable with one another; explain the rationale for alternative assessment. - engage students in a discussion of assessment. Elicit their thoughts on the values and limitations of traditional forms of assessment and help them see ways that alternative assessment can enhance evaluation of what learners can do with language. - give students guidance on how to reflect on and evaluate their own performance and that of others (see specifics in sections on peer and self evaluation). As students find they benefit from evaluating themselves and their peers, the teacher can expand the amount of alternative assessment used in the classroom. In conclusion he call for increased use of meaningful (authentic) assessments that involve language students in selecting and reflecting on their learning means that language teachers will have a wider range of evidence on which to judge whether students are becoming competent, purposeful language users. It also means that language programs will become more responsive to the differing learning styles of students and value diversity therein. Finally, language programs that focus on alternative assessment are likely to instil in students lifelong skills related to critical thinking that build a basis for future learning, and enable them to evaluate what they learn both in and outside of the language class. 56

57 3 Motivating learners Motivation is at the heart of successful language learning, and many Europeans are already motivated by the numerous personal and professional advantages to be gained from knowing another language. But it is important also to understand why many others do not currently study languages. They may regard language learning as irrelevant to their lives, too academic, too time-consuming, too boring, or they may have been put off by their experiences at school. Whatever the reason, imaginative solutions are required to overcome their reluctance to learn. By making the process meaningful and enjoyable, the hope is that people will come to see the personal relevance of learning a new language. Can foreign language teachers do anything to improve their students motivation? At a time when many students tend to opt out of foreign language (L2) learning as soon as they can, and even passively or actively resist attempts by teachers to involve them in L2 learning activities, it is hoped that theories of motivation will help L2 teachers to motivate their students. Theories of motivation generally seek to explain why and how individuals choose, perform, and persist in various activities, but ultimately, they are also expected to provide insights to those whose job it is to attempt to motivate others. Indeed, teachers are more interested in finding out what they can do to overcome deficits in students motivation to learn than they are in explanations of what accounts for amounts of variance in language proficiency (a typical preoccupation in research). More specifically, teachers are eager to find ways of increasing the quantity and quality of students engagement in learning activities, since students active participation in class helps everyone learn more efficiently, and makes life more pleasant in the classroom. Promoting engagement in classroom activities is especially important in foreign language learning contexts (as opposed to second language learning contexts) because communication in the L2 rarely occurs outside of the classroom. Yet, low L2 learning motivation in secondary schools, and concomitant low engagement in classroom activities represent a significant problem, which is compounded by the compulsory nature of most L2 study (Dörnyei, 2001c). Students often complain that L2 study is irrelevant to them, and frequently describe it as boring and difficult (Chambers, 1999). It is difficult to imagine that teachers bear no responsibility in this matter. Motivation plays a significant role in the process of learning a language. Language teachers cannot effectively teach a language if they do not understand the relationship between motivation and its effect on language acquisition. The core of motivation is what might be 57

58 called passion, which relates to a person's intrinsic goals and desires. Successful learners know their preferences, their strengths and weaknesses, and effectively utilize strengths and compensate for weaknesses. Successful language learning is linked to the learner s passion. And instructors should find ways to connect to this passion. Learners need quality instruction, input, interaction, and opportunities for meaningful output, not only to make progress, but also to maintain motivation for language learning. A good teacher, then, must tap into the sources of intrinsic motivation and find ways to connect them with external motivational factors that can be brought to a classroom setting. This is especially significant when English is not seen as important to the students' immediate needs, other than to pass exams. Because learners have different purposes for studying a language, it is important for instructors to identify students' purposes and needs and to develop proper motivational strategies. Students should understand why they need to make an effort, how long they must sustain an activity, how hard they should pursue it, and how motivated they feel toward their pursuits. Motivation fluctuates, and it is challenging to keep language learners' motivation at a high level all the time. When designing a language course, teachers must take into consideration that each learner has different interests and expectations. The following strategies are effective ways to increase language learners' external motivation. Create a Friendly Atmosphere in the Classroom Develop a friendly climate in which all students feel recognized and valued. Many students feel more comfortable participating in classroom activities after they know their teacher and their peers. Creating a safe and comfortable environment where everyone feels like a part of the whole is one of the most significant factors in encouraging motivation. Doing so may take time as students adjust themselves to a new setting. At the beginning of the school year, you can provide students with a bright and colorful classroom with pictures and projects completed by the previous year's students. This gives students the impression that learning the target language will be easy and enjoyable. It also gives students a chance to learn from what is present in the environment. Pair and group activities can be used from the very outset, reducing the pressure of teacher student interaction and allowing students to feel recognized by their peers. The feeling of becoming a part of the whole is one of the strongest motivational factors at the beginning of a school year. One ice-breaker that you could use to start this process is the nickname activity. Students can invent and write down a nickname (or use a nickname they already have). Arranged in a circle, each student has to stand up and explain his or her nickname. Along with introducing 58

59 themselves, this fun activity gives students a chance to create a friendly and flexible classroom atmosphere. Encourage Students to Personalize the Classroom Environment Providing students with a learner-centered, low-anxiety classroom environment has a great impact on language acquisition. Personalizing the environment can relax the students and enhance the friendly atmosphere, which will increase their desire to learn and develop their language skills. Students who feel safe and comfortable will feel more secure taking chances; they will display greater motivation to read aloud in class or write an essay without the fear of being criticized. Create Situations in Which Students Will Feel a Sense of Accomplishment A sense of accomplishment is a great factor in motivating students. Be sure to give positive feedback and reinforcement. Doing so can increase students' satisfaction and encourage positive self-evaluation. A student who feels a sense of accomplishment will be better able to direct his or her own studies and learning outcomes. Positive as well as negative comments influence motivation, but research consistently indicates that students are more affected by positive feedback and success. Praise builds students' self-confidence, competence, and self-esteem. However, giving positive feedback should not be mistaken for correcting mistakes without giving explanations. Some teachers correct students' mistakes without really explaining the reason for doing so. It is very important for teachers to point out the good aspects of a student's work and to provide a clear explanation of his or her mistakes. Students value the teacher's ideas when they feel that their good work is appreciated, and this encourages them to start evaluating themselves for further studies. Encourage Students to Set Their Own Short-Term Goals Language learners can achieve success by setting their own goals and by directing their studies toward their own expectations. Students can help themselves achieve their goals by determining their own language needs and by defining why they want to learn the language. Having goals and expectations leads to increased motivation, which in turn leads to a higher level of language competence. We as teachers should encourage students to have specific short-term goals such as communicating with English speakers or reading books in English. No matter what these goals are, we should help students set and pursue them. Provide Pair and Group Activities to Develop Students Confidence Students learn by doing, making, writing, designing, creating, and solving. Passivity decreases students' motivation and curiosity. Students' enthusiasm, involvement, and willingness to 59

60 participate affect the quality of class discussion as an opportunity for learning. Small-group activities and pair work boost students' self-confidence and are excellent sources of motivation. Group work can give quiet students a chance to express their ideas and feelings on a topic because they find it easier to speak to groups of three or four than to an entire class. Once students have spoken in small groups, they usually become less reluctant to speak to the class as a whole. Group activities allow students not only to express their ideas but also to work cooperatively, which increases class cohesion and thus motivation. One example is to do a vocabulary exercise in which you put students in groups of four. Distribute vocabulary words on flashcards, and each student must choose one of the flashcards without showing the word to fellow group members. Then, each student explains his or her word by giving three clues to the group without using the actual word. Using the clues, the other students must draw pictures that reflect the meaning of the word. This activity gives students flexibility to use other skills for their language development. It also gives quieter students a chance to express themselves within their groups, even when they are not confident to express themselves in front of the entire class. Connect Language Learning to Students' Interests Outside of Class In today s high-tech learning environment, it would be unfair to limit students to traditional methods. Encouraging students to relate their classroom experience to outside interests and activities makes developing language skills more relevant. For example, computer-assisted language learning could be linked to playing computer games, or to computer programs that the students are interested in using. Listening to English language songs, watching English language films or videos, and reading English language Web sites can lead students to broaden their perspective on their language acquisition process. Motivational teaching strategies such as these can easily increase language learners' motivation levels. The idea that student motivation is a personality trait and that students are either motivated or unmotivated is incorrect. Without sufficient motivation, even individuals with the most remarkable abilities cannot achieve their long-term goals. As instructors, we may be the most important factor in influencing our students' motivation, which is a key element in the language acquisition process. The teachers should be aware of the world of experience of his-her students and try to adjust the used material to this. Our Virtual Documentation Centre is divided in different thematic groups based on the possible interests of language learners. You can find the categories on 60

61 4 Practical part - Examples of best practise In this chapter you can find some examples of good practise in the field of innovative and creative ways of language learning in non-formal and informal contexts, selected by the partners of the YELL project. The entire selection of good practises can be consulted on virtual documentation center, where you can look up interesting language methods, tools or ideas using searching parameters such as target language, context of use of the language, category, etc. The examples of good practise have been grouped into 10 categories describing original and innovating ways of language learning through: Arts: theatre, story-telling, music, film, museums, exhibitions Campaigns and events Community building, social cohesion Contests and competitions, games, entertainment Language methods, dictionaries, educational magazines Media, press and multimedia (TV, radio, websites, , emags, blogs, social networking sites ) Language clubs, camps, classes, schools Gastronomy Sports Tourism, travel, transport (More examples to be added afterwards: 1 per category) 61

62 Arts: theatre, story-telling, music, film, museums, exhibitions International Storytelling festival of Alden Biesen Biggest storytelling festival in Europe. Storytellers from all around the world tell all kinds of stories in their native language, but they adapt their language use to the competence level of the participants. The event takes place in the historic castle complex of Alden Biesen, BE. The storytelling is meant for youngsters learning foreign languages at school, but the concept also appeals to adults and families. Participants learn that their passive knowledge of the language is much better than they thought! A lovely way to discover new languages and new stories (fairytales, suspense stories, legends, scary or comic stories ). Category: Arts: theatre, storytelling Age target group: under 16 / 16 and older Language(s) taught/learned: FR, DE, EN, NL, ES, IT Context language use: Foreign language, L1 Language competence: Listening Competence level CEFRL: B1-B2 / C1-C2 This learning concept can be organised anywhere, in any language, with or without accessories. Invite an entertaining native speaker storyteller to your class or organisation, become a storyteller yourself or let your students/group of learners perform. URL: Organisation: Landcommanderij Alden Biesen, BE 62

63 Contact person: Guy Tilkin 63

64 Community building, social cohesion Languages for sale Multilingual Christmas Market A simple and enjoyable out-ofclassroom activity, allowing students to practice their languages in a convivial atmosphere, celebrating Christmas with traditional food and songs while also raising money for humanitarian causes. Students are asked to bring objects to be sold on the last day of class and other students volunteer to sell the objects. The flea market is then conducted in the four languages that are taught at the centre (English, French, German and Italian), and each participant wears a badge indicating in which languages he or she can communicate. The event finishes with Christmas songs in the four languages. [Picture] Category: Community building, social cohesion Age target group: all Language(s) taught/learned: EN, FR, ES Context language use: foreign language Language competence: Speaking, Interaction Competence level CEFRL: A1-A2, B1B2 64

65 This learning concept example can be easily adapted, the initiative can be organized on the occasion of other events or fests. The effect of the good practice is a raise of motivation among learners in team of all learners. More advanced learners motivate beginners to speak in the foreign language. URL: Organisation: Escuela Oficial de Idiomas de Santander Contact person: Pierrette Hargoues-Turon 65

66 Contests and competitions, games, entertainment AMICITIAS (Ambient Intelligence as a Compelling Instructional Tool for Inter-linguistic and Intercultural Skills) AMICITIAS is a language and culture based, serious game project. The game can be played using common mobile phone devices, in six real-world locations throughout Europe. The game acts as a guide and teacher about the location, but the player is taken on a fictional journey, through the place they are visiting. The game contains images, animations, audio and interactive elements which in addition to teaching, also help assess progress. The player is rewarded with trophies, points and by completing the location objectives/language tasks. This encourages learning to take place outside the class-room at a pace suitable to the player. It also brings a depth of cultural interaction which would not be possible through other technological means because it is context based. [Picture] Category: Contests, games, entertainment Age target group: [ ] Language(s) taught/learned: EN, ES, IT, AR, Context language use: Foreign language Language competence: All Competence level CEFRL: [ ] This is an interesting tool, increasing motivation of youngsters for language learning. 66

67 URL: Organisation: School of Informatics, University of Bradford Contact person: David Robison Available tools: [ ] to be purchased 67

68 Gastronomy In Vivo - eating & drinking in English In Vivo is an American organisation that has established a meeting centre for students in Salamanca. They organise some regular activities during the academic year such as: - Remix Gathering (Tertulia Remix): organisation of a homemade lunch and after the lunch different activities and plays in English are performed. - English Coffe (Café ingles): a film projection followed by a gathering in english. - In Life (En vivo): organisation of a dinner based on tapas. After the dinner some activities and plays are organised for the students. - Publication of a weekly on-line magazine El Eco, with news and activities offer for the week sent by to the interested students. Category: Gastronomy; Media, Press and Multimedia Age target group: 18+ Language(s) taught/learned: EN Context language use: Foreign language Language competence: S, I Competence level CEFRL: [ ] This learning concept can very easily be adapted to different languages, eating cultures and locations. Try to include native speakers in the activities. URL: Organisation: Universidad de Salamanca, En Vivo Address: Calle de los Placentinos 3,