Cost Analysis Project: Diversity Training. Cheryl J. Servis. Virginia Commonwealth University

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1 Running head: COST ANALYSIS PROJECT: DIVERSITY TRAINING 1 Cost Analysis Project: Diversity Training Cheryl J. Servis Virginia Commonwealth University

2 COST ANALYSIS PROJECT: DIVERSITY TRAINING 2 Cost Analysis Project: Diversity Training In 1975, the Children s Defense Fund (CDF) released the seminal publication identifying the discipline gap between African American students and their White counterparts. In this publication, School Suspensions: Are They Helping Children?, researchers found that 67.9% of the 2,862 school districts reviewed had significantly higher suspension rates among African American students than White students. The CDF study found that this racial disproportionality was particularly troubling at the secondary level where African American students were suspended three times more often than their White peers. Literature Review In the 40 years since the original CDF study, the discipline gap has remained consistent with regard to the overrepresentation of African American students with out-of-school suspensions. Suspension is a form of punishment that assigns mandatory leave from school attendance for as little as one day to as much as several weeks. During the assigned punishment, students are not allowed on school grounds for any purpose including attending classes. Additionally, African American students are overrepresented in the overall number of office discipline referrals and the number of repeat referrals (Gregory, Skiba, & Noguera, 2010; Skiba, Horner, Chung, Rausch, May, & Tobin, 2011; Hilberth & Slate, 2014; Skiba, Chung, Trachock, Baker, Sheya, & Hughes, 2014). Cultural Differences After reviewing the data on school discipline disproportionality, Hilberth and Slate (2014) agreed that African American students were disciplined at much higher rates, but found no evidence that African American students are more likely to misbehave than their peers of other races. Skiba et al. (2011) found that the types of referrals in which disproportionality was

3 COST ANALYSIS PROJECT: DIVERSITY TRAINING 3 evident were in categories that were more interactive and subjective such as non-compliance and disrespect. This might suggest that in similar situations African American students responded in different ways than their peers of other races. The diversity in cultural norms between students might account for these differences in behavior (Gregory et al., 2010). Similarly, the cultural norms displayed by African American students may be at odds with the culture of their schools and represent a mismatch of cultural expectations with their teachers (Gregory and Mosely, 2004). The power of cultural norms. Monroe (2009) suggests that the disparity between African American and White students became apparent with the desegregation of schools. African American students were often sent to predominantly White schools where the faculty had little to no understanding of the power of cultural norms. The differing cultural norms of African American students and White schools may have set into motion the growing racial discipline gap seen in American schools today. Gregory et al. (2010) found that the disproportionality found between African American and White students was often based on subjective offenses such as defiance and non-compliance. Similarly, Gregory and Mosely (2004) suggested that teachers perceive African American students as more defiant or disruptive than other racial or ethnic groups. Because 87% of the teachers in the nation s largest school districts are White, a White-Middle Class climate exists in our nation s schools. A school climate that is different from the African American culture. According to Hilberth and Slate (2014), African American students use different communication styles and have different unspoken behaviors than their White peers. For instance, African American males may express themselves with a passion and emotion not found in their White counterparts. This difference may cause teachers to misinterpret these expressions as

4 COST ANALYSIS PROJECT: DIVERSITY TRAINING 4 argumentative or combative (Skiba et al., 2011). African American students are often disciplined for culturally based behaviors such as these that are not meant to be disruptive. Additionally, African American students are more likely to receive harsher disciplinary consequences than White students (Monroe, 2013). In fact, African American students are at risk for receiving more severe consequences for less serious behavior than White students. Because office discipline referrals most often begin with teachers, it is important for teachers to become aware of their own perceptions about African American students and how their own cultural norms influence their judgment of and reaction to student misbehavior (Monroe, 2005) Cultural mismatch. Gregory and Mosely (2004) suggest that teachers beliefs about race can impact their definition and creation of a discipline moment. A teacher s beliefs and pedagogy need to be examined as contributory factors in a discipline situation. The teacher may have previous experience with different racial groups, adhere to stereotypes, or simply lack knowledge of students cultural norms that might affect the interpretation of student behavior (Gregory and Mosely, 2004). Recognition and acknowledgment of a teacher s race and racial beliefs are important for creating equity-focused classrooms. In Gregory and Mosely s 2004 study, teachers cited external factors beyond their control as causes of student misbehavior. These external factors most often related to perceived problems with the school s organizational structure, climate, or culture. Teachers also tended to blame behavior problems on internal forces within the child such as psychological dysfunction. This allowed teachers to take little responsibility for their contribution to behavior issues and view students as trouble makers (Gregory and Mosely, 2004). Skiba et al. (2011) suggested that White teachers are often unfamiliar with the patterns of interaction typical of African American students. African American students may express

5 COST ANALYSIS PROJECT: DIVERSITY TRAINING 5 themselves with passion and emotion that White teachers may interpret as combative or argumentative. This same cultural mismatch may be present in African American students interpretation of a White teacher s classroom management style. An African American student s perception of a White teacher s management style as disrespectful might also lead to disciplinary actions due to a cultural miscommunication. Monroe (2009) found that teachers of successful African American students, both academically and behaviorally, negated deficit explanations for the discipline gap by demonstrating how teacher choices, perceptions, and attitudes can mitigate a potential student disruption and prevent disciplinary outcomes. She concluded that teachers could lessen the discipline gap by exemplifying an ethic of care through high quality instruction within their classrooms and sincere relationships with students and their parents outside of the classroom. While there is no disputing the empirical evidence proving the racial disparities in school discipline across our nation, the research on the explanations as to why this phenomenon exists produces only supposition. Cultural differences within our schools is inevitable. Hope for these teachers and their students is in rapport-building and relationships as individuals, not as members of a certain race. In order to build sincere and genuine relationships, students and teachers must develop an understanding of racial diversity, differing cultural norms, and how to negotiate those differences with compassion and understanding. That knowledge can be provided to teachers in the form of professional development on diversity and educational equity within their school divisions. Problem While enrolled in the course Equity and Leadership as part of a doctoral program at Virginia Commonwealth University, the author completed an equity audit of the rural, public

6 COST ANALYSIS PROJECT: DIVERSITY TRAINING 6 middle school for which she serves as principal. The equity audit revealed disparities in the number of discipline referrals received by African American students versus White students when compared to the overall population of the school. This finding lead the author to research possible reasons for the disparity and administer a survey to determine teacher perceptions. Understanding teacher perceptions concerning discipline issues could offer insight into how those disparities could be remedied. The purpose of the survey was to determine what perceptions existed within the faculty of the school where equity audit was performed with regard to how cultural norms affect student discipline issues. Survey results indicated a need for professional development for teachers on understanding cultural norms and how they play out in our day to day interactions with students. More than helping with student discipline issues and the racial disparities noted, increasing the faculty s understanding of cultural diversity could be beneficial with student, parent, and peer relationships. The purpose of this cost analysis is to determine of three professional development programs designed to address cultural diversity and educational equity, which program is most cost effective in reducing racial disparity in school discipline. Upon completion of the analysis, the author will make recommendations as to which program will provide teachers with the necessary cultural diversity and educational equity training with the least cost to the school division. Audience The target audience for this analysis is the administration of the school division in which the equity audit was conducted. The recommendations will be reviewed with the Division Superintendent, the Division Directors, and the school administrators. The training selected will

7 COST ANALYSIS PROJECT: DIVERSITY TRAINING 7 become a division level initiative to address the larger issues of racial disparity within school discipline practices evident in the one school, but no doubt present in the other three schools. This school division is small enough with only four total schools that what is symptomatic of one school would raise legitimate concern for the other schools. Identification of Appropriate Mode of Analysis A cost-effectiveness analysis was identified as the most appropriate mode of analysis for this project. Cost-effectiveness analyses are used to compare the costs and outcomes, or impacts, which two or more courses of action might provide to the client. In the current analysis, the professional development program that would provide teachers with an understanding of cultural diversity and educational equity in a meaningful way that translates to a reduction in the disparity in school discipline between African American and White students at the lowest relative cost would be the preferred program. The three programs reviewed for this cost analysis were from the Anti-Defamation League, Educational Equity Consultants, and Virginia Center for Inclusive Communities. Each of these organizations provides intensive training on location with consultants specifically trained in having the very emotionally-charged and personal discussions necessary to bring cultural diversity awareness to teachers. Given the nature of this type of training, having an objective outsider is crucial to the successful buy-in of teachers for the program. The most significant limitation of this form of analysis is the dependence on effectiveness data for decision-making. While each of these programs offer a myriad of client testimonials, they do not offer effectiveness data in the form of research studies on their programs. Even if such data existed, the uncontrollable variables specific to each school system such as student

8 COST ANALYSIS PROJECT: DIVERSITY TRAINING 8 population, teacher population, community culture, and teacher buy-in, would damage the ability to cleanly apply such data to another school system. Costs Each of the programs reviewed in this analysis were found through internet searches. Consultants from each of the three organizations were contacted via telephone to discuss their offerings and select a program that was comparable in content, duration, and presentation format for ease of comparison. Program components considered in the calculation of the overall cost to the client were distance of program facilities to the school system (associated travel expenses of facilitators), training options, services provided for each training option, and resources to promote sustainability of the program after training. Taking each of these factors into consideration, an overall cost was calculated for each program. Effectiveness As previously mentioned, effectiveness data was not available for any of the programs reviewed for this cost analysis. Client testimonials were available for each program, but do not provide data to support the conclusions of client participants. Pre- and post-surveys could be given to teachers to help determine if the training programs were effective in changing teacher perceptions of African American students as opposed to those of their White students. Due to the sensitive nature of cultural diversity and educational equity training, forthright responses of the teachers involved in training may not be dependable as even in anonymous surveys teachers will be able to recognize the response desired by their supervisors. More reliable data might include discipline data disaggregated by race and offense before and after cultural diversity training for teachers. However, controlling the data for other influencing variables may prove demonstrating the effect of training difficult in some schools.

9 Running head: COST ANALYSIS PROJECT: DIVERSITY TRAINING 9 Table for Decision Making Anti-Defamation Educational Equity Virginia Center for Inclusive Communities League Consultants Location Washington, D.C. St. Louis, MO Richmond, VA Fees $6,000 (plus travel expenses) $30,000 (plus travel expenses) $27,000 Training Option Calculated 2 day training (6 hours each day) for 200 educators 2 day Leadership in Racism Retreat for 30 to 40 educators and community leaders. 1/2 day training (3 hours) for 200 educators Services Provided Advantages Disadvantages Sustainability Free with Purchase: Anti-Bias Study Guide 32 unit lesson plan for use with students at each school level. Needs assessment before training. Plan for follow-up strategies to be implement locally after training. All division staff receive the same experience and hear the same content. Student component. Content is not customized to the level of students teacher work with each day. Resources and a plan are provided, but maintenance is left up the locality. 4 day training (6 hours each day) for 200 educators broken down by school. Leadership in Racism Retreat designed to create buy-in with a group of people already within or supportive of the larger group of division educators. 4 day training in self-examination and strategies to implement within the classroom and school community. Immersion experience from Retreat should create strong buy-in and subject knowledge of a core group of participants. Program includes community members. There is no planned time for division staff to receive the same experience with their colleagues from other schools. Retreat component may cause a hardship for some participants. Quarterly follow-up sessions should help keep up the momentum from training. Follow-up sessions with educators broken down by school 4 sessions recommended cross one school year. 3 hour workshop style training for all staff. Surveys administered to staff following training to customize the follow-up training sessions in schools. All division staff receive the same experience and hear the same content during the initial training. Content is customized in the follow-up sessions for the needs of each school. Staff input is requested. No student component. Quarterly follow-up sessions should help keep up the momentum from training.

10 Running head: COST ANALYSIS PROJECT: DIVERSITY TRAINING 10 Decision Recommendation The three reviewed programs all provided an initial training for division teachers. The program offered by Educational Equity Consultants did not offer initial training for all staff, but a small group of teachers and community leaders. The program from the Anti-Defamation League did not provide follow-up sessions with the adults in the division, but did offer lessons to be used with the student body. The programs offered by Educational Equity Consultants and Virginia Center for Inclusive Communities both recommended quarterly follow-up sessions with division staff in their home schools to focus training on the needs of particular school communities. All three programs covered the cost of materials in their program fees so no additional monies are needed. While the author felt the program from the Virginia Center for Inclusive Communities offered the program that would best suit the needs of this small school division (inclusive initial training and customized follow-up), the cost of the program is prohibitive and would never be a possibility in these budget times. Consequently, the program offered by the Anti-Defamation League would be the program recommended by the author to this school division. This program offers an intensive, facilitator lead, two day training for all division staff. Unfortunately, the follow-up and resulting sustainability of the program would be the sole responsibility of division leaders. Research suggests and the results of the faculty survey of the middle school in this division underscores the need for teacher training in cultural diversity and educational equity in the classroom. Programs such as those reviewed in this cost analysis are an important first step in increasing teacher awareness and prompting honest conversations about race. However, the

11 COST ANALYSIS PROJECT: DIVERSITY TRAINING 11 true test of effectiveness of such programs comes in the changes in teacher beliefs and studentteacher relationships leading to lasting and meaningful changes to the school culture and climate.

12 COST ANALYSIS PROJECT: DIVERSITY TRAINING 12 References Children s Defense Fund. (1975). School suspensions: Are they helping children? Cambridge, MA: Washington Research Project. Gregory, A., & Mosely, P. M. (2004). The discipline gap: Teachers views on the overrepresentation of African American students in the discipline system. Equity & Excellence in Education, 37(1), Gregory, A., Skiba, R. J., & Noguera, P. A. (2010). The achievement gap and the discipline Gap: Two side of the same coin? Educational Researcher, 39(1), Hilberth, M., & Slate, J. R. (2014). Middle school black and white student assignment to Disciplinary consequences: A clear lack of equity. Education and Urban Society, 46(3), Monroe, C. R. (2005). Why are bad boys always black? Causes of disproportionality in school discipline and recommendations for change. The Clearing House, 79(1), Monroe, C. R. (2009). Teachers closing the discipline gap in an urban middle school. Urban Education, 44(3), Monroe, C. R. (2013). Discipline and diversity in the suburban US South. Race Ethnicity and Education, 16(2), Skiba, R. J., Horner, R. H., Chung, C. G., Raush, M. K., May, S. L., & Tobin, T. (2011). Race is not neutral: A national investigation of African American and Latino Disproportionality in school discipline. School Psychology Review, 40(1),

13 COST ANALYSIS PROJECT: DIVERSITY TRAINING 13 Skiba, R. J., Chung, C. G., Trachock, M., Baker, T. L., Sheya, A., & Hughes, R. L. (2014) Parsing disciplinary disproportionality: Contributions of infraction, students, and school Characteristics to out-of-school suspension and expulsion. American Educational Research Journal, 51(4),

5 Programmatic. The second component area of the equity audit is programmatic. Equity

5 Programmatic. The second component area of the equity audit is programmatic. Equity 5 Programmatic Equity It is one thing to take as a given that approximately 70 percent of an entering high school freshman class will not attend college, but to assign a particular child to a curriculum