Essay Writing Workbook

Transcription

1 Academic Learning Support Essay Writing Workbook

2 The Essay Structure Introduction (10% of word count) General statements on broad topic (Definitions of important terms) Statement of the central argument Listing of main points to be covered Paragraph Paragraph Body (80% of word count) Conclusion (10% of word count) Paragraph Topic sentence Explanation & evidence Evaluation Concluding sentence (Optional) Link Topic sentence Explanation & evidence Evaluation Concluding sentence (Optional) Link Topic sentence Explanation & evidence Evaluation Concluding sentence (Optional) Restatement of the central argument Summary of main points covered Final statements 2

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4 The Introduction * The Introduction should generally be 1 paragraph. It should be no more than 10% of your word count. * Indicate the general topic or thesis: what is this essay about? * Explain your opinion of the topic: what is your central argument? * Outline the main topics you discuss: what are the main points you use to back up your argument? * Explain any main terms you feel need defining. The Body * The essay is written as a series of paragraphs and the Body makes up roughly 80% of the word count. Write the body of your essay first (then the conclusion & finally the introduction). To write a paragraph: * Start with a topic sentence. This is the first sentence of a paragraph. It should outline the main point discussed in that paragraph and make links to the central argument. The topic sentence should be in your own words. * Following the topic sentence, a paragraph is usually structured from general information to specific details. These specific details may be statistics, quotations, theories or examples that support the main point you are putting forward in that paragraph. * In an essay you must present a central argument, with several points to support your argument. Critical thinking involves thinking through both sides of an argument (this includes developing a counter argument). Thus, you will need to be aware of the exceptions to your argument, as well as the facts that support your argument. Discussing the counter arguments or claims against your central argument and explaining why they are incorrect can make your argument stronger and demonstrate your broad understanding of the topic. * It is essential to reference carefully. In-text references should be placed immediately after all quotations and paraphrases. Always acknowledge from where your information is coming. Failure to do so is considered PLAGIARISM. The Conclusion * The Conclusion should be 1-2 paragraphs and no more than 10% of your word count. * Restate the main argument. * Summarise the main points you used to support your argument. * Make a final statement. The Reference List * Start on a new page with the heading Reference list. * Follow the Harvard Referencing System to format your reference list. You need to provide the full details of all the sources you referred to within your essay. FORMATTING TIPS Headings Write the title of your essay at the top of the first page. Do not use subheadings (unless advised to in your course profile or by your tutor). Start the Reference List on a new page. Paragraphs Separate all paragraphs with a line space. 4

5 Steps in Writing an Effective Essay The key to writing a good essay is understanding and researching the question! Read the question carefully. Identify the directive words these words tell you how to approach the essay, for example, analyse, compare, describe. (See last pages for a list of definitions of directive words) Identify the content words these words tell you what your essay will be about. Research the question look for appropriate sources. Use the content words and synonyms of the content words as keywords for your searches. Look for suitable academic books and journals in libraries (CQUniversity Library, City of Sydney Libraries, or your local council library) and for electronic journals containing academic (or scholarly ) articles through the Electronic Resources section of the Library website. Make sure you are familiar with all the resources available through the Library website by completing the Research Workshop, doing the online tutorial or making an appointment with a librarian. List the titles of possible materials to use. Read the list carefully and cross off anything that does not look directly relevant to your topic. Take notes from the materials you have selected. Take care to write the full referencing details at the top of your notes. Write any copied material in inverted commas so that you know it is a quotation. Write an outline for your essay by listing the main arguments you are planning to discuss. In an essay, you must show both that you understand the topic, and demonstrate that you have analysed the topic critically. Write your essay by following the guidelines below. Many people find it easiest to write the body of the essay first. You should do whatever works best for you! Edit your draft carefully. Is your argument logical and clear? Have you supported each of your main points with evidence from your research? Are your quotes and paraphrases correctly referenced? Have you included a list of References? Does your essay contain grammar or spelling errors? REMEMBER Quotations are not included in Having problems? Get help from the LSU. your word count. You need to learn how to put material into your own words. 5

6 Examine the Question and Brainstorm Example question: Analyse the major causes of water shortage in the world today. Key Content Words: Key Directive Words: Major causes, water shortage, world today analyse See last pages for definitions of words commonly used in assignment and exam questions. Analyse: Divide something into parts and then describe how the various parts are related so that you can evaluate its importance. Major Causes: main reasons for something the outcome from an event - either due to natural causes or human activity Water shortage: an absolute, not a relative, shortage of water not enough water to meet minimum needs World today: not only in one country or continent, but all over the world not in the past, but now and over the past few years Examples: The Murray River in Australia, Aquifers all over the world My interpretation of the question: What are the main reasons for current water shortages worldwide? Are the reasons due to human activity or natural causes? What evidence is there to support the reasons given? 6

7 Using the Voices of Experts to Support Your Opinion On the following pages you will find a sample essay analysing the major causes of water shortage in the world today (Dinyar 2003, cited in Brick 2006, pp ). In the side notes Brick demonstrates how voice is used in this essay to incorporate the opinions of experts to support the writer s arguments. Voice refers to whose thoughts or opinions are heard in any one part of the text the voice of the writer, or the voice of his or her sources. In an academic essay, both must be present. When writing an essay, your voice presents the central argument or thesis, writes the topic sentences, expresses your opinions and states the final conclusions. You do not reference your own voice. The voices of your sources are used to support your argument. These voices are used to provide expert evidence, such as expert opinion, examples, case studies, and statistics. The voices of these sources are always referenced. How you use the voices of others depends on how much you want them to dominate your essay. The direct voice of a quotation is the most intrusive voice you can use. When you use a direct quote, you should bring your own voice back into the essay by commenting on the quote and explaining why you have included it. This also demonstrates your understanding of the quoted material. Less intrusive is the indirect voice, when you paraphrase the ideas of the source and refer to the author s name, followed by the date of publication in parentheses. Such a reference makes the author s name prominent in the sentence. Brick (2006) suggests that although not as dominant as the direct voice, using the indirect voice too much may cause your own voice to be lost in the essay. The least intrusive use of a source is called the external voice, which allows your voice to be dominant as it paraphrases the information. You reference the source by including the author s name and year of publication in parentheses at the end of the sentence. For example: Australians can help reduce national greenhouse emissions by sensibly managing their household appliances (Smith 2008). A good essay should include your own voice and the use of indirect and external voices. Although you can choose to use the direct voice (quotes), you should use it only occasionally as it dominates the text and removes your voice from the essay. 7

8 A Sample Essay Demonstrating the Use of Voice (Source: Brick, J 2006, Academic culture: a student s guide to studying at university, Macquarie University, Sydney, pp ) 8

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11 A Sample Essay (for Exercise 1) Title of the essay Introduction State the main topic. Indicate the central argument. Define the main terms. List the main topics discussed. Body Contains separate paragraphs for each new point you are making. Long quotation Start on new line. Indent 1cm from both margins. Use smaller font size. Topic sentences Start each paragraph with a topic sentence. This summarises the main argument contained in that paragraph. It should be in your own words. Counter Argument Paraphrase Write the information from a source in your own words. Put the reference immediately following the section you have paraphrased. A Discussion of Critical Thinking and Rote Learning This essay contrasts the benefits of rote learning and critical thinking in the context of university education. It argues that although rote learning is important for passing exams in some subjects, the development of critical thinking skills is far more crucial in succeeding overall within the tertiary education environment. Whereas rote learning involves memorising information, the central aspect of critical thinking is to ask questions and to think independently. Critical thinking carries across to all aspects of learning, including participating actively in the classroom, selecting and reading source material carefully, and constructing logical arguments in written work. This essay focuses on the importance of critical thinking for assessing the validity and relevance of information and for constructing a coherent argument. Studies have indicated that critical thinking skills are more important than memorising information in order to perform well at university. For example, in her article, Critical thinking and college success, Jeanne Higbee (2003) writes that habits of mind are far more important than specific content knowledge to succeed at tertiary level. The skills that were found to be most crucial for study are outlined in the following quotation: The habits of the mind include critical thinking; analytical thinking and problem solving; an inquisitive nature and interest in taking advantage of what a research university has to offer; the willingness to accept critical feedback and to adjust based on such feedback; openness to possible failures from time to time and the ability and desire to cope with frustration and ambiguous learning tasks. (Higbee 2003, p.78) Higbee s article discusses the results of a study which identified the learning behaviours of successful students in relation to a range of subject areas including Mathematics, Science and English. She concludes that those who succeed at tertiary level are active, independent and curious learners who are able to construct logical arguments and support these with relevant information. Critical thinking is also vital for assessing the validity of different information. It is important to question the arguments presented in different sources, and identify what stance the writer is taking in relation to the material. To read critically, it is important to determine whether the information is consistent with other sources read on the subject; what sources the writer uses to back up their arguments, and whether these are reliable sources; and the strengths and weaknesses of the writer s argument. In comparison, rote learning does not develop the skills which are important for university education. Although in some subjects it is necessary to memorise information such as formulae used in maths, science and statistics, it is more important to understand the application and relevance of these formulae. Rote learning also does not assist students to construct valid arguments, as it fails to teach students to think independently. For example, it has been argued that rote learners are more likely to use inductive 11

12 Short quotation Use inverted commas around the words copied from the source. Conclusion Restate the main argument. Summarise the main points used to support your argument. Make a final statement. fallacies, in which case their reasoning will not be sound (Sternberg 2004). These fallacies include the ad populum argument in which the reason given for the conclusion is that the majority of people agree with it. Sternberg writes that the essence of this fallacy lies in our need to conform to popular views and conclusions (2004, p. 69). Critical thinking, on the other hand, enables students to construct logical arguments, which is essential to all university work. In conclusion, although rote learning is necessary in some situations, it is far more important to develop critical thinking skills in order to succeed at university level. The skills involved in thinking critically and analytically can assist students to construct sound arguments and to assess their reading material in terms of the validity of its content. Whereas memorising information has limited value in terms of university education, critical thinking is one of the most crucial aspects of university study. Reference List Start this on a new page. Give the full details of all sources you have referred to in your essay. Format using the Harvard System of Referencing. Reference List Higbee, J 2003, Critical thinking and college success, Research & Teaching in Developmental Education, vol. 20, no. 1, pp (online ProQuest). Sternberg, RJ 2004, Four alternative futures for education in the United States: it s our choice, School Psychology Review, vol. 33, no. 1, pp (online ProQuest). STYLE TIPS Make sure your writing flows. Once you have written a draft of your essay, check that the paragraphs are ordered in a logical way. Read over the topic sentences: do they follow a logical sequence? Always write in the third person. Do NOT use: I, my, me, we, our, us, you, or your. Use the present tense when you are writing about other people s work, such as, Johnson points out that or Studies indicate that. Do NOT start paragraphs with quotations. Write topic sentences. Always use gender neutral language: he/she, their, the author, the researcher, and so on. Use formal language: Do NOT use words such as things! Be specific! Use the passive voice. Make appointments with staff at Academic Learning Support to get extra help with your essays! 12

13 Exercise 1 - Understanding the Essay Read the sample essay (page 10 & 11). Form groups and complete the following tasks. 1. Read the introduction of the sample essay on pages 10 & 11. a. Highlight the writer s argument/thesis. b. Underline the 4 points that the writer is going to discuss to defend their argument. Number them Read only the topic sentence (the first sentence) of each body paragraph. a. Match each of the paragraphs to one of the 4 points from the introduction. b. Write the matching number next to the paragraph. (Note: there are 5 body paragraphs, but only 4 points.) 3. Select one body paragraph to analyse. a. Find the part in the paragraph where the writer explains how the point supports their argument. b. Underline the evidence in your paragraph c. How strong is the voice of this evidence? Is it direct, indirect, or external? d. Highlight the sentences where the writer s voice is heard. e. Look at the list below. These words are linking words called cohesive devices or transitional phrases. Circle the words or phrases below that are used in your paragraph: It is clear Another major problem Together, these In addition In other words Nevertheless Even more seriously A related problem At the same time Because 4. Read the concluding paragraph a. Highlight the restated argument/thesis b. Underline the sentences where the writer summarises the essay s main points c. Identify the voice in which it is written. 13

14 Essay Outline Below is the framework of an academic essay. Each section refers to one paragraph. Read the sample essay again (pg. 10 & 11) and identify the parts of the essay and the sections of each paragraph. Use this Outline to plan your own essays. Introduction General statement Definitions of important terms Statement of the central argument, thesis or opinion List of main points Body Point 1 topic sentence Explanation Supporting evidence (theories, statistics, examples) Concluding sentence (optional) Body Point 2 topic sentence Explanation Supporting evidence (theories, statistics, examples) Concluding sentence (optional) Body Point 3 topic sentence Explanation Supporting evidence (theories, statistics, examples) Concluding sentence (optional) 14

15 Body Point 4 topic sentence Explanation Supporting evidence (theories, statistics, examples) Concluding sentence (optional) Body Point 5 topic sentence (Counter argument) Explanation Supporting evidence (theories, statistics, examples) Concluding sentence (optional) Conclusion Restatement of central argument or thesis Summary of the main points Reference List Final statement of possible implications or recommendations Start on a new page with the heading Reference List Follow the Harvard Referencing System 15

16 An Introduction to Academic Language Academic English is aimed at emphasising OBJECTIVITY and avoiding ERROR. It is written using: 1. the third person 2. qualifiers to avoid generalisations and 3. a formal, academic vocabulary 1. Use the third person and avoid the first and second person: Singular Plural First Person I/me we/us/our Second Person you/your you/your Third Person he/she/it they him/her/it them his/her/its their NOTE: Avoid using he, his or himself or she, her or herself when referring to people in general. Use she/he or he/she. Alternatively, rewrite the sentence in the plural they, them, and themselves. Using the third person minimises personal interest in the subject, and makes the writer appear objective. 2. Use qualifiers to avoid generalisations Academic writing strives to be accurate by avoiding generalisations. There are many qualifying words, which reduce a blanket statement to one which only applies in certain circumstances. Avoid the following words or expressions: Always Invariably Never It is always (the case that) It is never (the case that) Replace with qualifiers: Mostly Mainly It seems to be (the case that) It appears to be (the case that) Similarly, avoid overly emotive words, such as perfect, terrible, or amazing. WARNING: Do not go too far down this route, as it is possible to become overly-cautious and no definite statements are made. This can make the work weak and unconvincing. 16

17 3. Use formal, academic vocabulary: Academic writing uses: the technical vocabulary of the subject and a formal, academic vocabulary. For example, the word kids is often used in informal writing; however it is more appropriate to use formal synonyms, such as children or students, in academic writing. Instead of Says Nowadays People who like People who dislike [The article] is about Lots of Find out, come up with Get Doing He Use argues, claims, maintains, asserts, contends, alleges, insists, suggests, points out, states In recent years, currently Those who agree with, supporters of, proponents of, those in favour of, advocates of, pro- (e.g. proslavery) Those who disagree with, opponents of, those opposed to, critics of, objectors to, anti- (e.g. antislavery) [The article] discusses, outlines, analyses, explains Many, several, numerous Explore, investigate, study, research, discover, determine, ascertain Obtain, receive, achieve (be more specific) investigating, completing, responding, answering, solving He/she; he or she Also, avoid contractions and abbreviations: Instead of Use Don t Do not Can t Can not They re They are It s It is e.g. For example etc. (etcetera) such as, including, for example. (These phrases suggest there are other examples, which could also be included.) To show ownership, an apostrophe s ( s) is placed after a proper noun (the book s title; the child s toy). For pronouns, such as her, their, or it, simply add an s: hers, theirs, its. Meanwhile, Him becomes his. Acronyms are a series of letters, usually capitalised, formed from the initial letters of other words, such as that used for Human Resource Management (HRM) or North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). These can be very useful, but the reader needs to be introduced to the acronym when it is first mentioned by stating the words in full, followed by the acronym in brackets. The acronym can be then used alone. Some acronyms like the UN or radar, have become so widely used, they no longer need such an explanation. Source: Brunton, K 2002, Academic English Skills Pack, London Metropolitan University, viewed 6 November 2003, 17

18 Definitions of words often used in assignment or exam questions Assignment and examination questions use a variety of words that have specific meanings. The following list contains definitions of some commonly used key words. Account for: Explain why something is as it is; explain the causes for something. Analyse: Divide something into parts and then describe how the various parts are related so that you can evaluate its importance. Argue: Present the case for and/or against something. Assess: Decide how important something is and give your reasons. By referring to or with reference to: Include this text, case study or example in your answer. Comment on: Point out the important features and criticise. Compare: Describe the similarities between two or more things. Contrast: Describe the differences between two or more things. Compare and Contrast: Describe both the similarities and the differences between two or more things. Concise: Short or brief (description, explanation or answer). Criteria: Rules or requirements that apply to something. Criticise: Give your opinion about the merit or truth of opinions expressed, and then draw conclusions discussing both the limitations and the good points. Deduction: The conclusion or generalisation you come to after carefully examining all the facts. Define: Give a brief, clear and authoritative explanation of what something means. This explanation should also give the limitations of the definition, but leave out detailed explanation. Sometimes it is also necessary to show how the item defined differs from other items. Describe: Give a detailed account of something by recounting, characterising, outlining and relating in sequence. Diagram: A drawing, chart, plan or graph. This should be labelled and have an accompanying explanation. Discuss: Give both sides of an argument and then your own opinion. Distinguish between: Describe the differences between two or more things. Elaborate on: Write about a statement or a quotation that is part of the question. Explain the statement or quotation in more detail and then state your point of view concerning the statement or quotation. Evaluate: Give an opinion, supported by evidence, on the worth or value of something. Examine: Critically investigate and appraise a subject in detail. 18

19 Explain: Clarify, interpret and elaborate on the material presented. Give reasons for differences of opinions or results, and try to analyse the causes for these differences. Give an account of: Describe/give a statement of facts in sequence, or in report form. Identify: Point out and describe/name. Illustrate: Give examples (or diagrams) to explain or clarify something. Implications: Why something is significant or important; the long term impact, effects or results. Indicate: Identify, and then demonstrate to clarify. In relation to: Refer to a specific aspect of something. In the context of: In a particular setting; by referring to. Justify: Give reasons for your conclusions or opinions. Limitations: Give reasons why something is not perfect. List: Present a group of items in the required order without comment unless asked for. Outline: Describe the essential parts, showing the main points and subordinate points, but omitting minor details. Relate X to Y: Show what the connections are between X and Y by discussing the similarities and differences. Review: Discuss something critically, analysing and commenting on the important or controversial statements/ aspects. Role: The function of something; the part something plays; how something works, especially in relation to other things. Scope: The extent or influence of something. Show: Give reasons and causes. Significance: The consequences and importance of something. State: Present the main points in a brief, clear sequence, usually omitting details or examples. Summarise: Give main points, omitting details. Suggest: Propose a theory or method and defend it by showing how it could work. To what extent: not true. Explain the ways in which something is true and the ways in which it is Trace: Follow the development of something from its starting point. Validate/verify: Provide evidence or facts to show something is or is not true 19