EXPERIMENTS AND INNOVATIONS IN EDUCATION

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2 EXPERIMENTS AND INNOVATIONS IN EDUCATION This series is published in English, in French and Spanish Titles in this series: 1. The TEVEC case 2. The school readiness project 3. Innovation in reading in Britain 4. Understanding change in education: an introduction 5. Changes in secondary education and their implications for continuing education in Canada 6. A community school in Yugoslavia 7. The basic secondary school in the countryside: an educational innovation in Cuba 8. An experiment in the ruralization of education: IPAR and the Cameroonian reform * 9. Educational innovation in Singapore *10. Educational innovation in Iran *11. Educational innovation in India *12. Educational innovation in the Republic of Korea *13. Educational innovation in Indonesia 14. Experimental period of the International Baccalaureate: objectives and results 15. Radio study group campaigns in the United Republic of Tanzania 16. Educational reform in Peru 17. Establishing an institution teaching by correspondence 18. Youth participation in the development process: a case study in Panama 19. Mostaganem Institute of Agricultural Technology: an educational innovation 20. Post-graduate teacher training: a Nigerian alternative 21. Innovation in Upper Volta: rural education and primary schooling 22. The Peruvian model of innovation : the reform of basic education *23. In-service training of teachers in Sri Lanka *24. Examination reforms in Sri Lanka *25. Management of educational reform in Sri Lanka *26. Integrated approach to curriculum development in primary education in Sri Lanka *27. Integrated science in the junior secondary school in Sri Lanka Continued inside back cover

3 Experiments and innovations in education No. 34 An International Bureau of Education series Educational reforms and innovations in Africa Studies prepared for the Conference of Ministers of Education of African Member States of Unesco Unesco Paris 1978

4 The designatións;erriplbyedand the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Unesco Secretariat concerning the legal status of any country or territory, or of its authorities,'or concerning the delimitations of the frontiers of any country or territory..'.' '> l - Published in 1978 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 7, place de Fontenoy, Paris, France ISBN Printed in Switzerland by Courvoisier S.A., La Chaux-de-Fonds Unesco 1978

5 Preface This publication contains nine brief case studies of some educational reforms and innovations in some African countries. It was originally published as a reference document for the Conference of Ministers of Education of African Member States (MINEDAF), which took place in Lagos, Nigeria,between 27 January and A February In particular, it was prepared as part of the reference documents for the deliberations of Commission I, which examined in great detail the problems encountered by African countries in the course of changes which are now occurring in their education systems. Its main purpose was.therefore to provide a brief survey of some educational innovative experiments in Africa. The selection of projects/programmes for the case studies was influenced by one of the major items to be dealt with then in great depth by the Conference in one of its Commissions, namely, the problems related to mass education in support of development particularly to the initial phase of extensive lifelong education now commonly termed 'basic education'. The publication had, however, a restricted distribution, and was thus not available to a good number of other education policy makers, planners, administrators and researchers in Africa who could benefit from the experience it provides. Furthermore, as a result of a strong desire on the part of most of the Member States to step up their efforts in making fundamental changes in.their education systems, and having fully realized the inestimable reward in a group or groups of innovators in similar areas exchanging experiences, they recommended at the MINEDAF that Unesco establish an exchange Network of Educational Innovation for Development in Africa (NEIDA). This will be a programme of inter-country co-operation in the African Region. In response to this request, Unesco has established the Secretariat for this programme at the Unesco Regional Office for Education in Africa, Dakar, Senegal; with the plan to launch the programme early in 1978.

6 This programme will, among other things, promote exchanges of information and experience between national institutions engaged in the same type of work or between projects involving several countries. One of the means of doing this will be a systematic publication and diffusion of much longer, and greater in-depth case studies. This publication is meant to be the first issue of that series. In short, this reprint serves twin purposes: to provide wider circulation for the edition published for the MINEDAF and to launch a new series of case studies on educational innovations and reforms in Africa, to be published under the auspices of NEIDA in co-operation with IERS, Geneva.

7 Table of contents Introduction p. 7 I. Middle-level practical education in Senegal by Samba Dione, Directeur de l'enseignement moyen pratique, Secrétariat d'etat à la promotion humaine, Dakar, Senegal, p. 11 II. Reform in basic education in Mali by Issa Yena, Directeur general de l'institut pédagogique national et de l'enseignement normal, Bamako, Mali, p. 19 III. Mass education linked to development: Tanzanian experience by P.K. Mitande and R.Z. Mwajombe, Ministry of National Education, Dar es Salaam, United Republic of Tanzania, p. 25 IV. The fundamental reform of education in Benin, with particular reference to basic education by Jean Pliya, Vice-recteur de l'université du Bénin, chargé de l'exécution du Programme d'édification de l'ecole nouvelle, Porto-Novo, Bénin, p. 31 V. Reform of the education system in Togo by Koffi Atignon, Secretaire général du Ministère de l'éducation nationale, Lomé, Togo, p. 38 VI. Innovative reform in Ethiopia by Ato Bekele Getahun, Assistant Minister, Ministry of Education, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, p. 48 VII. Introduction of the written Somali language by Osman Jama Dahir and Muse Hussein Askar, Curriculum Development Centre, Ministry of Education, Mogadishu, Somalia, p. 58 VIII. Distance teaching and mass education, Kenya by Peter E. Kinyanjui, Assistant Director, and Ben K. Gitau, Institute of Adult Studies, Correspondence Course Unit, University of Nairobi, Kenya, p. 65 IX. Exchanges on basic education in East Africa: a network of sub-regional co-operation by Alex Tosh, Unesco/Unicef Regional Adviser on Basic Education, Nairobi, Kenya, p. 73

8 Introduction Since their political independence, African countries have made impressive efforts in developing their education. In many cases, these efforts have led to more pressing challenges as new aspirations create an ever-widening gap between societal expectations and national achievements. Consequently, far-reaching decisions on educational policy have been and are taken and serious efforts are being directed towards the renovation of education systems in many countries. These educational reforms and changes, though aimed at solving more or less the same type of problems in most countries, vary in nature, pattern and extent, at least in detail. Furthermore, they are at different stages of conception and implementation. Some countries, even though they have fully realized the need for change, are still trying to identify the most suitable direction for the change. This publication-provides African case histories of some important educational reforms and innovations with the aim of sharing the experience they provide among other African countries. Since any reform or innovation is largely an experiment, attendant experimental risks can to some extent be reduced or eliminated if lessons on specific ongoing projects/programmes are available. The purpose of this publication is therefore to provide information on some important innovations and reforms from which policy makers, planners and administrators can tap the experience of other countries, and assist their national leaders to see alternative strategies for reaching their goals. In addition, it is intended that this publication will provide a basis for comparative studies on methods, procedures and results. There are many more examples in which existing efforts in various countries can provide lessons in a movement towards fundamental changes in education systems, but time and space are limiting factors. It is, however, planned that more publications on current educational reforms and innovations in Africa will be pubr lished and distributed in the near future. Furthermore the Inter- 7

9 national Bureau of Education, Geneva, has already carried out some studies in Africa for publication in its series 'Experiments and Innovations in Education'.1 A short synopsis The education systems in many African countries today are turning out a considerable number of primary school graduates, of whom a large number neither continue their education nor get jobs. They in fact possess very few or no employable skills. The great task confronting many governments, therefore, is to equip these young people and fit them into productive structures without depopulating the rural areas. Many bold attempts have been made but most of them have failed, leaving the fundamental problems unsolved and sometimes aggravated. The case study on 'Middle-level practical education in Senegal' provides a new approach to the solution of the problem of primary school leavers. This project is based on the realization that absorption into productive systems should occur largely through self-employment and that the training system should be related to social changes. The approach described in the case study tries to establish a new relationship between training and the society, by involving the masses -(young and old, literate and illiterate) in the process of training. More importantly the training is based on the needs of the people as identified by them and it tries to develop simple technologies based largely on local resources. Most of the other case studies are partly designed to solve similar problems, but their objectives are much wider and they involve in a way the reform of the school system, i.e. they are not just limited to out-of-school projects. The 'Reform in basic education in Mali', which is still at the conception stage, is aimed at restructuring the education system to provide the masses with a general basic education which will enable them to participate more effectively in national development. It suggests a methodology for initiating educational change. This begins with a critical evaluation of the existing system followed by a redefinition of the problems and then the involvement of many sectors of the society in the search for a solution which is aimed at the complete overhaul of the lower echelon of the system. 1. See inside covers: nos. 8, 15, 17, 20, 21. 8

10 The case study on the United Republic of Tanzania, which comprises some ongoing projects, provides examples of how the provision of mass education could be linked with national development. The projects, form part of the general innovative reform of education which has been taking place within the context of an over-all social change. Among other things, it illustrates how to mobilize all efforts for the provision of functional education to the masses, with particular emphasis on rural development. It is also notable for the manner in which it integrates education with the life of the village. The case studies on reform in Togo, Ethiopia and Benin provide some further lessons on a complete change in the education system for the creation of a new type of man and a new nation. Priority is given to education for productive work and as part of this objective, education is being designed to be self-financing. Within the framework of an over-all reform of the system, the case studies of Benin and Ethiopia illustrate the development of basic education for all the citizens. One leitmotif that runs through most of the case studies, particularly those of Mali, the United Republic of Tanzania, Benin, Togo and Ethiopia, is the fact that social change precedes or keeps pace with any meaningful educational change. Another feature common to most of these innovations is the usé of national language or mother tongue as medium of instruction at least in the lower part of the education system. Among other things this is meant to foster a closer tie between the school and the society as well as to rehabilitate national cultural values. Many other African countries are at the moment seriously considering the possibility of using their national languages as means of instruction. The Somali case study provides an interesting and valuable experience in this field. If mass education is to become a reality, the use of other methods besides the conventional ones becomes imperative. The case study on distance teaching and mass education opens our eyes to the immense potential of distance teaching through the application of some appropriate modern educational technology to foster mass education and a learning society. Lastly, it must be stressed again that the few studies published in this document are not intended to give the whole picture of educational changes going on in the countries concerned, much less in the whole continent. However, they indicate the general pattern of the wave of educational change which is taking place. 9

11 Some changes are mainly directed towards out-of-school education; some of these are small in size and in their impact. But some changes are general in nature, trying to remould the entire education system. A few of the reforms (and more countries are entering into this stage) could be justifiably regarded as radical revision of traditional priorities, systems and patterns. This wave of change, however, requires a re-examination of the nature and strategies of regional and/or sub-regional co-operation so that current experiences in various countries may be used for their mutual benefits. The case history on the 'Exchange on basic education on East Africa: a network of sub-regional co-operation 1, provides possible guidance in this regard. 10

12 I. Middle-level practical education in Senegal Since 1971, Senegal has been living through a period of educational reform. Middle-level practical education, introduced as an entirely new branch, parallel to middle-level general and technical education, is to absorb 80 per cent of pupils who are not guided towards the two latter types of education. Middle-level practical education has arisen out of a need, i.e. to find a form of education that would provide continued schooling for young primaryschool leavers who could not be catered for under the existing arrangement. It will be a non-conventional system, geared to requirements and involving little expense, responsibility for which is to be accepted by the communities themselves; it will equip young people to take their place in the production circuits and to fit into their social environment. The situation requires analysis, which reveals that the specific problem of keeping up the level of knowledge acquired and of putting it to profitable use cannot be dissociated from the more complex issues of the drift from rural areas, unemployment among young people in the towns, their integration in the production circuits and, more generally, their reintegration in the social environment whence they have come. Stated thus, the problem goes far beyond the scope of the educational reform process and calls for the devising of a new education system which must not be of the conventional type, disseminating a set of values and knowledge ill fitted to the social environment. The magnitude and complexity of the problem therefore pointed to the need to devise a non-conventional form of education which would be nation-wide in scope. In approaching this question, the initial situation has to be regarded from two angles - economic and socio-cultural.. Only some 40 per cent of the school-age population in Senegal attend school and of these, only a fraction (20 per cent of those enrolled) go on to secondary education. This means that from 35,000 to 40,000 young people leave primary school each year without any 11

13 further educational opportunities or plans. Some 15,000 of them in the rural areas can find nothing better to do than to swell the ranks of the already large number of unemployed youngsters in the towns. Yet this mass of young people represents an untapped economic and social potential in which the State has already invested heavily. The fact should not be overlooked, when referring to the primary school leavers who find themselves in a blind alley, that there are others in the same age group who are still illiterate and are therefore in the same situation. The number involved, having regard to the low enrolment rates in Senegal, is much more impressive. There is no need to dwell on these facts to realize their sociological and psychological impact. School leavers are all the more attracted by urban life in that the basic knowledge acquired at school (which is not equivalent to 'know-how') and the socio-cultural models on which it is based bring about a psychological break with their original environment, while the superficial adoption of new 'urbanized' behaviour patterns fails to provide any deep satisfaction for individual aspirations, in the absence of means of finding the economic wherewithal to give them reality. The sociological consequence is that society as a whole has the feeling of a constant generation conflict which isolates each age group in its own particular design for living. These young primary school leavers without jobs have virtually no real prospects in the existing economic structures, and apart from these structural problems, mention should be made of the fact that the Senegalese State cannot create enough jobs each year to keep pace with the ever-increasing number of young people. In urban areas, industrialization - which might be regarded as a solution to the placing of young people - draws its personnel from among skilled workers with a higher standard of training, and cannot therefore satisfy the needs of the young people being trained under the middle-level practical education scheme. In the rural environment (from where the drift to the towns begins) the development operations that seem to provide a solution do not, in fact, do so in view of the very limited number of posts they offer. Systematic analysis of the economy of the rural world reveals an extroverted system, with the following features: 12 - extreme simplification of production structures and technological processes; - little diversification of products;

14 - constant drain of resources towards external markets; - ecological disequilibria which it is beyond the power of short-term palliatives - such as the use of fertilizers - to redress; - almost total absence of occupation for two-thirds of the year (once seasonal work is completed); - complete dependence on imported technologies geared to profit rather than to indigenous development resulting in the creation of new jobs. The tendency of young school leavers, in consequence of this break with their environment, to drift to the towns, coupled with the economic situation just outlined, strips the country areas of their dynamic population elements who are also those to whom society looks for its demographic renewal and that onward transmission of its values. Because of this inability to ensure continuity, society is placed in a vulnerable situation in relation to the outside world, leading to destruction of the Black African values on which the indigenous culture is based. At the psychological level, reintegration of those who have completed their schooling involves the risk of a break between them and their parents, having regard to the different or even hostile standards on which their behaviour patterns are based. Far from avoiding this danger, the present education system has itself been a major factor in imposing an entirely extraneous model: on completion of primary schooling, children are equiped with knowledge which is of no direct, practical use, while their ways of thinking set them apart from the rest of the community. This is a situation that faces - or will face - the middlelevel practical education scheme throughout the country. It is a constant factor which necessarily determines the way in which the problem should be approached if the aims in view are to be achieved. There is no use in planning training, whatever this may consist of, if the problem of integration is not solved. In other words, an exclusively educational solution is not in itself sufficient to achieve the objectives of middle-level practical education. This cannot be merely a modified reproduction of primary school, for this brings with it the danger of a harmful division between the aims of the new system and the methods used for its implementation. Primary school provides knowledge that is not immediately translatable into know-how; it consists of basic education following 13

15 which children are directed ('guided') according to the ability they have acquired. If this pattern were followed (modified reproduction of the primary school), what would be achieved, at best, would be a remedial process on the educational plane without reaching the target of economic and cultural integration. The two essential aims of middle-level practical education are: (a) to keep up the level of the knowledge acquired and put it to practical use, and (b) to enable young people to take their place in the production circuits. While the provision of means whereby the second aim can be achieved is a prerequisite for the middlelevel practical education scheme, the first aim can only be achieved subsequently, as a bonus. There is a great temptation to reproduce the further education experiments already tried out in Senegal (rural classes, youth camps, etc.). Such systems focused attention on the quality of training and its adaptation to the technical problems of the environment. The assumption had been that the transformation of attitudes through training and the technical skills acquired would be sufficient to ensure that the young trainees would find their real place in society. In actual fact these young people have joined the drift to the towns because lack of employment openings has prevented their integration. There was no preparation on the part of the community for their economic and cultural integration because of the lack of demand for their skills. It appears, then, that technical training is not an end in itself but should always be a means of serving a project. In the middle-level practical education scheme, technical training is related to a blueprint for society, a blueprint drawn up by the community and providing means whereby young people can be integrated within society, both economically and culturally. The problems connected with middle-level practical education This analysis of the situation clearly reveals that since integration in the economic sector is the vital aim of middle-level practical education, its effectiveness will be in proportion to the capacity of the young trainees to take an active part in the economic development of their locality and of the country in general. Since training in itself does not create employment openings, careful thought should be given to the logical relationship between training and employment. The creation of employment openings for 35,000 to 40,000 young people each year implies, then, the transformation of production structures. 14

16 In the rural milieu in Senegal, at all events, it is the people who possess and control the means of production - viz., the peasants - who are best equipped to carry out such transformations. The idea behind middle-level practical education is to get the peasants to embark on a voluntary process of change that takes place under their control and is at the same time in conformity with national policy, in other words directed towards gaining economic and cultural independence through the responsible participation of those concerned. This means that the local community must put its resources to better use and itself devise ways and means of enabling young people to find their place, i.e. must draw on its resources and develop them on the basis of the well-known principle of selfreliance. Once that has been done, the local community will seek outside assistance, through the middle-level practical education scheme, for the operations which lie beyond its scope. From this plan for joint action, on the part of the central authorities on the one hand and local communities on the other, springs a design or blueprint for society such as will associate attachment to traditional values and practices with willingness to accept modernity. The purpose of this change will be, then, to transform production structures to the extent that enough posts are created to keep young people in continuing employment. The aim is to create conditions that will lead to the diversification of production, increased autonomy in regard to employment and increased integration of production processes, in some cases covering the entire economic chain from production to consumption through processing, conservation and marketing. This process of economic integration necessarily leads to a demand for skilled manpower in order to cope with the information, techniques and procedures involved in these operations. Added to which, these transformations give the head of the family an opportunity to become once again a model of strength and authority for the younger generation and, thus, the custodian of a social and cultural blueprint in which young people and adults alike see their aspirations reflected. However, for the peasants to be able to plan and control their own future they must first, as has been stated, possess the means of production; this situation does not prevail in urban districts, where, apart from bearing the heterogeneous character of a floating population, town-dwellers have only their labour and, hence, are dependent upon an employer. / 15

17 Middle-level practical education in urban areas, then, while still part of a blueprint for society of which education is only one aspect, at present operates: (a) in collaboration with the central economic and finance departments; (b) in collaboration with the local communities to the extent that these can organize themselves as 'employers', i.e. become capable of undertaking the autonomous management and execution of a variety of types of work and processes such as renovation, food production and supply, etc. It is this assumption of responsibility that is, more than anything else, required in the approach to middle-level practical education. The preliminary stage in the opening of a middle-level practical education centre This assumption of responsibility is unobtainable at the outset, in view of the state of economic - and occasionally cultural - dependence in which the community finds itself. Because of this a preliminary stage is required. Its purpose is to make it possible for the people themselves to seek and formulate what will be basically their own solutions to the problem of training young people so as to enable them to take their place in the community. This process is neither a survey nor a study of the social environment, nor yet a dialogue by means of which middle-level practical education personnel would seek to gain support for solutions advocated by them. What it involves rather is the use of educational techniques and methods designed to enable communities to see the problem of young people in clear terms, to analyse it, and to discover and discharge the responsibility which rests with them for seeking solutions that they themselves will have to implement. By their attitude, questions and explanations (and not by providing partial solutions), the personnel engaged in middle-level practical education assist each local community in itself determining the manner in which, under its responsibility, young people are to be trained and found a place. It is clear that this community participation is an absolute necessity if it is borne in mind that middle-level practical education has to absorb all children leaving primary school, some 35,000 to 40,000 each year (not counting illiterates in the same age group), so as to enable them, through appropriate training under community responsibility, to play a permanent, effective role in production. These requirements mean that the provision of em- 16

18 ployment openings and acceptance of responsibility by the community are the twin pillars on which the success of middle-level practical education rests. Specific action must therefore be taken towards these ends vis-ä-vis the local population through whom progress in these respects can alone be achieved. This preliminary stage ends with the establishment of decision-making bodies which will organize the construction and running of the training centre. This is not a conventional training institution, but an exchange and information centre whose precise function is to provide the educational component of the socio-economic design for the region concerned. It does not seek to provide universal knowledge of a type alien to the social environment, but knowledge that will meet specific needs with a view to implementing the design in question. The training of young people The training to be provided by a middle-level practical education centre emerges gradually during the preliminary stage; by the time it ends, the aims of this training, its relationship with changes in the milieu, and its structures, content and procedures are all defined. The aims of the training can be inferred from the ultimate purpose of middle-level practical education (integration in the social environment and absorption in the production circuits) and from the special skills and qualities that are desired in the young trainees, so that they will become producers with a direct knowledge and a critical, comprehensive understanding of the physical, economic, social, political and cultural milieu in which they live, producers with a developed sense of awareness, familiar with production, consumption, trade and marketing processes and capable of launching into money-earning productive activities. Training is thus defined as the ideal means of implementing the 'blueprint for the future' drawn up and prepared by the local population. Its components are therefore established in relation to the problems to be solved, the local community's acceptance of a major share of responsibility in this training, and the necessary dialectical relationship between training people and changing institutions or structures. If this training is defined as being both a consequence of the changes that are planned and a means of bringing them about, it is because it is not an end in itself but an instrument of change. 17

19 It is accordingly clear that middle-level practical education is education for change, its character and content depending on the changes it is designed to effect. Training thus becomes an ideal means of developing aptitudes through the acquiring of knowledge and know-how - the capacity to turn an inquiring mind towards the environment, to criticize, adapt and experiment with innovations, and to be creative. Results and prospects Three years of experimental work have made it possible to open two centres. 1. In Langomack (Fissel district, Department of M'Bour). This is an experimental centre for the development of methodological and working hypotheses and educational aids, the provision of practice facilities for trainees and experimental work in technology and agriculture. 2. In Khassous (Tattabuine district, Department of Fatick). This centre has enabled the hypotheses and aids tried out in the first centre to be confirmed. The middle-level practical education scheme has now got to the expansion stage. Nation-wide.coverage by the system is planned for 1982 (with 800 rural and 400 urban centres). This extension does not, however, imply the pure and simple extrapolation of results already achieved. It will have regard for the specific features of each region and each zone. A further prospect is the opening up of a comprehensive, wide-ranging debate at national level as to how the middle-level practical education scheme should be implemented and what it entails, culminating in nation-wide action to ensure that young people who have completed middle-level practical education are fully and permanently absorbed in national life. 18

20 IL Reform in basic education in Mali The education systems of developing countries in general and of Mali in particular are characterized by their non-adaptation and the very rapid increase in running costs. As far as the education system of Mali is concerned, the inadaptation has been alleviated by certain ameliorations and innovations which have taken place in the course of the last decade, but they have been aggravated by an expansion in schooling itself (social demand) and by a far more widespread awareness of the imperatives of development: thus, the reform of 1962 has offered Mali the basics of an education adapted to the socio-economic realities of a young independent State and, in the space of several years of application, has enabled a functional educational infrastructure, in keeping with the political, social and economic options of the country's development, to come into existence. In fact, this reform was the first important formulation of national education policy in the Republic of Mali: it has fixed the primary objectives of the education system of Mali, has given new structures to the schools in Mali and has orientated the country's efforts to adaptation, extension and research. The basic 'convictions' of this reform have been reaffirmed many times since 1962 by the authorities for education policy, and even today they sustain all the activities carried out by the Ministry of National Education in Mali. The principal objectives are: - to provide quality teaching to the masses; - to provide a teaching which can cater, with the maximum economy in time and money, to the requirements of the country for its various development plans; - to provide a teaching which decolonizes the minds and rehabilitates the African cultural values. Teaching of quality for the masses is concerned with: - firstly, the horizontal development of education for the whole population so that they are able to integrate themselves 19

21 within the process of economic development: this teaching is 'carried out indirectly in fundamental schools (1st and 2nd phases): each pupil in the fundamental schools, by doing manual work in schools, in fields, in fishing, in workshops... should be a 'producer' at the end of the second phase of basic teaching; this teaching has also proved fruitful as basic education for adults and young people who have had no prior school education (functional literacy teaching); - secondly, the development of education on a vertical basis is provided for the best of the pupils completing their fundamental education. While following general secondary schooling and advanced schooling, these students have to ensure a harmonious balance between the socio-economic and socio-cultural sectors of the country. After ten years of applying this educational policy, the following factors of the present situation are apparent: - a spectacular explosion in numbers at all levels of education; - an insufficient quantity in educational and social output of the education system despite the financial efforts made by the Government; a psycho-educational barrier limiting and compromising the performance of young people at school (language barriers, breakdown of the socio-economic equilibrium, etc...); - an insufficient quality in the social and economic output, revealing a certain inadaptation in methods and an alienating and uprooting effect of the media used. There is therefore a gap separating the general aims of the Reform of 1962 and the results obtained: after an analysis of the causes, which has brought to light the various unfavourable factors such as those mentioned above, it seems that the education system itself prohibits any fundamental ameliorations. The search for a solution to this problem seems urgent, therefore, and the choice has been in the field of basic education: defined as education for the masses in order to make them participate in the economic development of the country. In fact, during the past decade, Mali has undergone an original educational experiment, which has brought about positive results with regard to principles of teaching, viz., the experiment in fuctional literacy teaching which has achieved a threefold aim: 20

22 - literacy without risking a relapse into illiteracy, i.e. instructing in national languages; functional education, i.e. improving the training of producers (selectively making groups of people literate for determined objectives of production...) ; - avoiding alienation and up-rooting while elevating the cultural standards of the producers. Functional literacy teaching thus meets, at least partially, the aims of mass education and of education adapted to the economic and social realities and needs. The projected reform of basic education, stimulated by functional literacy teaching, is thus the search for and experimentation of appropriate ways which would provide an adequate and extensive basic education to the majority of the school-age and active population - without overstepping the threshold imposed by foreseeable financial constraints - through the preparation and concerted experimentation of educational techniques and teaching materials. The anticipated point of departure is the methodology of 1 functional literacy teaching, the use of national languages, use of radio, etc., the whole being encompassed within new forms of organization and functional teaching structures. The study is based on the consideration of economic and social needs which basic education should fulfil: that is, it should provide an answer to the following questions: (i) what is the quality and minimum knowledge required to participate successfully in the economic development (in the medium and long term)? ; (ii) what are the aspirations and attitudes of the different groups of the population towards learning? Moreover, the study will explore the resources, organizations, structures, methods and means of distribution of knowledge, as they exist or could exist regarding personnel - the system of formal education, and other means existing in matters of non-conventional education - with a view to putting into practice another better adapted system of education. In short, this study on the reform of basic education has been defined 'as an activity of educational research on structure, or on systems which could bring within the reach of the entire active population a general basic education, keeping in mind the foreseeable financial constraints'. To help launch this study, the Government of Mali has requested Unesco to provide the technical support envisaged for the Project: 21

23 thus, with the help of a consultant and in agreement with the Director of the IBRD Education Project, working groups have been formed in order to conclude satisfactorily the indispensable research and the execution of the work programme for the first phase of the study (phase of diagnosis and proposals...)- The team responsible for the study is an interdisciplinary one operating within the framework of the National Institute of Functional Literacy and Applied Linguistics set up for this purpose. Six working groups have been formed. - The first working group will focus its efforts on the first cycle of fundamental education (1st to 6th years). Its aim is to make proposals for better adapting the existing first cycle of fundamental education to the needs of the country with reference to the options retained by the Reform of 1962: (a) problems arising from the use of national languages in teaching within the first cycle; (b) problems arising from the learning of French as a foreign language; (c) liaison between school and the home environment; (d) problems arising from the school calendar: admission age and the duration of schooling; (e) training of teachers for the first cycle of fundamental education in IPEGs (Instituts pédagogiques de l'enseignement général) The second working group will conduct research on the training of rural adolescents. This working group will have as its aim: (a) to carry out a study, based on the experience already gained from the provision of functional literacy teaching for adults, of the possibility of providing a basic education in national languages for the great number of rural adolescents (14-17 years) who have not yet been through the traditional system; (b) to carry out a study of the measures to be undertaken to ensure the readmission, in better conditions, of dropouts or of pupils who have not had access to the second cycle of fundamental education. In particular, the group will study the problems of the content of basic education, the structures of training to be put into practice and the methods of training. - The training of adults will be studied by the third working group. It will undertake a thorough evaluation of the exper-

24 iments presently under way (functional literacy teaching, rural centres), will propose improvements deemed necessary, and will study the problems posed by the extension of the existing forms. - The fourth working group will examine the definition of what should be a basic education for women in Mali, in the rural and urban milieu and according to age (girls who have been through school, adolescents who have not been through school, adult women): analysis and evaluation of the effects of existing training; proposal of a policy for training women. - The fifth working group will undertake research on applied linguistics and will produce materials in national languages: study of problems posed by the utilization of national languages in training at all levels (schooling children, adolescents and adults); necessary basic materials and drafting documents on training in liaison with the interested bodies. - The sixth working group, finally, will study the regional educational strategies: its objective is to work on the basis of recommendations of the sectorial study groups and to define, by regions, a global educational strategy adapted to local conditions (justification of the regional approach, methodology). It will be seen that the objectives of this project necessarily embrace other social domains apart from those of education. In fact, to conclude this study successfully, the methodology to be followed must include an exhaustive census of all the existing educational institutions: schools of general, technical and vocational training, and of all the systems which could possibly be exploited: here, it goes without saying, a close collaboration will be called for between the Ministries of National Education, of Public Health and Social Affairs, and of Production. All the research efforts will have to be undertaken within the framework of the structures of development (agriculture, cattle farming, fishing...); they should also integrate within the socio-economic structures already existing or to be created (villages, associations for schoolchildren's parents, definite linguistic groups, established nuclei of community development, centres of rural activity, industrial groups in the towns, State societies and enterprises, etc...). 23

25 A reform as fundamental as this cannot be effected without mastery of the different key parameters underlying the operation: it will be necessary, for example, to change fundamentally the mentality, the attitudes and the behaviour of schoolchildren's parents, of the rural youth, the school-going children, and, in particular, of the rural populations... and these changes have yet to be brought about. The Reform of Basic Education in Mali is a pilot experimental project: it will be the work of the National Institute of Literacy and Applied Linguistics; educationalists, linguists, sociologists and economists will participate in it. The interministerial committee created has been responsible for constituting the working groups and the consultative groups. A detailed plan of research and a calendar for targets to be achieved have been proposed for these different working groups. It will ensure that the selected experiments are put into practice in the best of conditions and it will undertake a scientific evaluation of the results of these experiments before carrying out the desired extensions. The authorities responsible for educational policy in Mali place great hopes in the realization of this project, and it is thought that this would be, in fact, the solution to the thorny problem of harmonious integration of the Malian school to the economic development of the country. 24

26 III. Mass education linked to development : Tanzanian experience The nature and characteristics of the reform The United Republic of Tanzania, as many other countries in Africa, had been under colonial rule for many decades before becoming independent in Foreign domination and independence brought about many changes in the country; particularly in education, economics and social welfare. Before the colonialists came, Tanzanians had had their own system of education which was mostly 'informal 1. Children received education which prepared them for village life and, in fact, the villages themselves were schools. The kind of education which children received helped them to understand the true meaning of 'Ujamaa' which was based on the belief in and acceptance of human equality and was supported by respect, sharing of work and fair distribution of wealth. The colonialists came: and with them they brought foreign religions and they introduced schools where formal education was given. The education they provided helped to make Tanzanians literate but also it aimed at preparing a 'Black African' who copied foreign ways of living. The Arusha Declaration was aimed at making the country once again into an Ujamaa country where the inhabitants will be workers and where exploitation will be strongly resisted. It sought to control and improve the economy and so to bring about changes in the people's social welfare. What gave rise to the reform? The Independence and the birth of the young Tanzanian nation gave rise to reforms. The people realized that the colonial government had failed to save Tanzanians from poverty, ignorance and disease, and felt that the time had come for them to liberate themselves from these common enemies. Some changes have taken place, e.g. nationalization of banks, schools, etc. Some changes have to be slow because of their nature. Educational change, for example, is 25

27 indeed a slow process, mainly because it involves a change in the values ant attitudes of the society of which it is a part. To achieve any meaningful success, then, any educational reform must take place concurrently with the reform of the society. In 1967 President Nyerere wrote his book Education for selfreliance in which a policy was outlined aimed at developing a radical new form of education to fulfil socialist goals. This document became a turning-point of the education system and the source of the educational reform. The reform advocated was not limited to teachers and educationists only but encompassed the entire population. Several changes in the education system were begun and attention was then devoted to changes in curriculum and organization of schools, to methods of teaching and to the age of school entry. On New Year's Eve 1969, President Nyerere made a national appeal to all Tanzanians to involve themselves in functional learning and to wipe out ignorance. His appeal was supported by the ruling party at its biennial conference in Dar es Salaam in The conference went further to direct the Party and the Government to do all they could to eradicate ignorance by December The campaign to achieve this went into full swing throughout the country, and the media played an important role. The Ministry of National Education in co-operation with Unesco has launched a project in the Lake Region to eradicate ignorance and -provide its people with functional learning. Many small books on farming, agriculture, child care, etc., have been printed and are read by thousands of'people along the lake. The Ministry of National Education has adopted some of the methods used along the lake and several books have been printed to help farmers and workers in different parts of the country. Corresponding changes The Ministry of National Education is not the only Ministry involved in mass education. The Ministries of Health and of Agriculture and the Prime Minister's Office, to mention only these, are busily engaged in mass education activities in the country. In 1972, the Ministry of Agriculture launched a campaign known as 'Siasa ni Kilimo' with the aim of encouraging people to grow more food and produce cash crops to help the nation to increase its foreign exchange. Great emphasis was put on improved modern agriculture, use of manures and fertilizers and application of insecticide to protect crops. The following year, 1973, the Ministry of Health launched a 26

28 campaign 'Mtu ni Afya', the aim of which was to help Tanzanians to improve their health by improving sanitation, waging war against mosquitoes and other disease carriers. Later, the Ministry of Health launched another campaign, 'Chakula ni Uhai' aimed at encouraging people to have a balanced diet and to discourage some people from beliefs and taboos on foods which are contrary to rules of good health. The Prime Minister's Office finances seminars and short courses organized into various centres in the country for farmers. The National Radio station works hand in hand with all the ministries which are engaged in the mass education programmes. Wieve changes take -place Changes take place everywhere and all the time in the country, major changes being on a national scale as, for example, the mass literacy campaign, the activities of which were accelerated by Mwalimu Julius Nyerere in 1969/1970. There are, however, local changes whose results are felt in many parts of the country. A few examples may be cited. There is a centre called Kibaha. Kibaha, as an educational institution, concentrates all its efforts on giving the type of education which prepares Tanzanian citizens for the fight against ignorance, disease and poverty. The centre is implementing its objectives through various sections namely: (a) secondary and primary school at Tumbi; (b) health training centre; (c) farmers' training centre; (d) rural development unit; (e) library (including mobile units). These sections include several units such as dairy farm, poultry unit or nutrition and home economics unit. Short and long courses on specialized fields are organized to help the local community. Kibaha is really a project for rural development. Its purpose is to improve the village life and the environment. As part of the education reform, the country is engaged in several experiments. One of the most interesting and innovative is the exploration of ways in which the life and curriculum of the school may more effectively be integrated with the life of the village. This programme started as a pilot project at Kwamsisi near Korogwe in Tanga Region. The school is sufficiently near the College of National Education to enable the Principal, the staff and the students to visit the village. In 1971 preparations for the new venture were begun. The Ministry of National Education outlined specific objectives for the experiment: every activity engaged upon 27

29 by the school was to further these stated objectives. Meetings of regional district development officers, education officers, political party officials and college tutors preceded the all-important meetings with village committees and parents. The proposed project won ready acceptance, not through any coercion, but because of its intrinsic merit and the respect.for villagers' opinions and wishes * shown by the College Principal and tutors, who spent long hours winning their confidence and enlisting their participation in the planning exercise. The curriculum for the school was defined in four areas: literacy and numeracy, citizenship or political education, self-help and cultural activities, environmental studies. The new school curriculum was then launched. The village is run by one main committee assisted by several sub-committees, viz., the Village Committee, the School Sub-Committee, the Self-Help Sub-Committee. Through these and other, smaller sub-committees, several interesting activities or features have taken place. All in all the villagers have and are still translating the curriculum theory into practice. In the village there is a feeling of belonging to each other and it is not unusual to find villagers and children happily working side by side at joint development tasks or at traditional crafts or enjoying themselves in one another's company in singing, dancing or playing football. Materially, there is a marked change. The children are better clothed (at village expense) and appear to be healthier, while the school itself is in good repair and expanding through self-help efforts. Before the experimental days the school had a formal, subjectcentred curriculum which bore little relation to the life of the village surrounding the school. The villagers viewed the school as a centre for formal education for education's sake. With minimal integration of the school and society, the school and the villagers operated as separate entities coexisting as a logical response to the norms of life only. Now, the emphasis is on complete integration of the school life and the Kwamsisi villagers. This is reflected in a general feeling of belonging to one another and in a pooling of resources and efforts towards the success of the community as a whole. This integration is further confirmed by the fact that, administratively, the village chairman is also leader of the school. The idea of expanding this project is reinforced by people's overall assessment after visiting Kwamsisi that the type of education should be ex- 28

30 tended to other schools. The Ministry of National Education has instructed the eleven grade A colleges to replicate the Kwamsisi Project for further experimentation. There are several other projects which may be mentioned here. The Lushoto Integrated Rural Development Project (LIDEP) is a joint undertaking of the Community Development Trust Fund of Tanzania and the project and all its activities, whether social or economic, are geared to this purpose. It was started as a four-year pilot project in 1969, aimed at promoting rural development through an integrated approach, based on the felt social, educational and economic needs of the people of Lushoto District. The post-primary centres' aims are: (a) to give further technical skills to those who have completed primary schooling, in a period of not less than two years; (b) to make maximum use of the facilities (workshop, library, assembly hall, etc.) and resources (teachers, administrative staff, etc.) for upgrading literacy and improving various skills of all people living around the centres. Rural libraries are being established in every ward to start with, and will be expanded to cover every village. People's development colleges, staffed by graduates of adult education, will provide mass, functional, work-oriented education which will upgrade people's educational level. The Institute of Adult Education runs correspondence courses in different fields. Local newspapers contribute much to the maintenance of permanent literacy and several other aspects. Workers' education institutions cater for a fair-sized population. It would be unrealistic to claim that these projects do not run into any problems. One of the main problems faced was to change the attitude of people who received colonial education. It was difficult to get the new ideas concerning education adopted, especially the idea of involving villagers in matters concerning schools. This problem was alleviated through seminars and through political education sessions which were well attended. Unpredictable weather conditions were another setback in some projects. In some areas people worked tirelessly following what they learnt but at times, to their disappointment, the weather misbehaved in one way or another, resulting in crop failure, etc. 29

31 The United Republic of Tanzania, like many other countries of the world, is hit by its economic crisis. There are wonderful plans and ideas which cannot be implemented because of limited financial resources. In spite of these many problems, morale is high and there is a determination to develop the country in the belief that education is the key to its development. 30

32 IV. The fundamental reform of education in Benin, with particular reference to basic education THE PRINCIPLES OF THE REFORM In May 1973, in the context of fundamental changes initiated by the Revolutionary Military Government, an important National Commission met at Porto-Novo, drawn from all the social strata, to work out the reform of education presently under implementation in Benin. It was concerned with global reform which affects all types and levels of education as well as the different stages of education for the citizen. Drawing lessons from a past marked by foreign domination, cultural alienation, economic exploitation, the training of a 'white collar' man for colonial service who was full of scorn for his own people, their values of civilization, and imbibed with the sterile myth of diplomas, the reform has expressed preparation for lif,e, the integration of the child within the society as a productive and disciplined member as major principles of the New School; 'for there is no schooling problem to be solved in isolation, the problem is one of development of which the schooling problem is an important element'.1 As such, 'the New School' is a centre for promoting economic and social development, and a means of encouraging the participation of all in production.2 It seeks to establish a system of democratic and patriotic education which places the teaching of sciences and of modern techniques at the service of public interest. The New School, a democratic one - for the laymen and the masses - will be under the authority of the State, and teaching will be in national languages with the desired syllabus, defined by the people themselves in conformity with their deepest aspirations. Compulsory and free, the New School is meant for all Beninese children and teaching will be freed from all the partitions and selective barriers. This implies the decolonization of structures, of teaching methods and organization, in keeping with national ideology. 1. Programme national d'édification de l'ecole nouvelle, p Ordinance No of 23 June 1975, Article 2. 31

33 The reform of the school presupposes and necessitates the simultaneous reform of all the social and economic.sectors, the transformation of which conditions the general development and affirmation of national independence. It was because of this that, very early on, collaboration between the Ministry of National Education and the Ministries of Rural Development and of Public Health in particular was initiated to enable the different strata of society to be the real driving force for development. Preliminary conditions and characteristics To achieve these specific objectives, the Reform which gave birth to the New School of Benin has had to overthrow the structures, the methods and the education and teaching programmes inherited from the colonial system. Since the project is directed towards the development of man and the nation, it is understood that one of its crucial traits would be fundamental liaison with the environment, society and production. Priority for production Discarding the colonial and neo-colonial education system which turned out on to the labour market inapt and unproductive diplomabearers, rejecting a malthusian teaching which produced a high rate of wastage, i.e. students unprepared to exercise any profession, and which only favoured an increase in the privileged minority, the New School sweeps away the old structures - selective, onerous and unproductive- and identifies itself with the idea of production units. The principal objective of the production unit is to introduce pupils to productive work as well as achieving a certain output meant to bring about self-reliance, or at least partial financing of the costs for running these schools. In any case, the child who enters school will no longer leave until he is equipped with a trade; i.e. neither age nor the level at which compulsory schooling stops will be fixed dogmatically: according to a unitary conception of the education system, the traditional (classic) type of examinations will be replaced with a new type of examination based on a continual assessment of the knowledge gained, by means of individual index cards, a progressive orientation, specialization at all levels, introduced very early on to render the school more effective, less costly and tied to the real needs of the country. 32

34 GLOBAL STRUCTURE OF THE NEW SCHOOL Based on these principles, the- reform establishes a new kind of school and education system consisting of two levels and a structure for out-of-school and post-school activities. The first level is subdivided into: nursery school teaching, basic education, middle-level education, polytechnic complex. The second level provides higher education. The People's Centre for Education, for Further Training and for Initiation to Production combines all educational activities for those who are in active life. This Centre is concerned especially with literacy, correspondence courses, further training, initiation to production, educational recreation, sport, etc. The new structures will not have a rigid and unalterable character; they will be open to improvement by means of successive readjustments by keeping in step with practical life. The new programmes These will aim at spreading knowledge - of how to do and how to be, and will adapt themselves and be well balanced by: - helping to put into practice the principle of linking the school with practical life by encouraging the study and transformation of the environment; - preparing for the task's of conceiving ideas and innovating, to achieve harmonious social and economic development. The methods of the New School should be directed towards a profound transformation of the attitudes of the teacher, who should cease to consider himself as the only keeper of knowledge and become a social leader, and adviser, and help to foster awareness. The organization of the timetable should take into account pupils' physiological and psychological possibilities, should link the school with life and ensure a balance between practical and intellectual activities, provide for periods of time to be used according to teachers' initiative, and modify the school calendar in accordance with the seasons in Benin and with the link between teaching and practical life. The characteristics of each type of education will be directed to achieving the general objectives. The organization of basic education shows in a concrete manner the innovation of the New School, its implementation and the results already gained. 33

35 THE STRUCTURE OF BASIC EDUCATION This level of education, covering a period of 5 years, will admit, in principle, children of 5 to 6 years of age, coming from nursery schools. It requires the study of a national language. The syllabuses will be organized around three groups of activities. - Instrumental disciplines: mathematics; language of instruction; study of the environment: history, geography and natural sciences. - Practical activities focusing on the transformation of the environment:crops, cattle farming, craftsmanship, gardening, cooking, manual and technological work adapted to the rural and urban environment. - Introduction to political, civil, military, artistic, physical and.sports education, without overlooking the rudiments of home economics which apply equally to boys as well as girls - rudiments of first aid, hygiene, nutrition, sex education as well as the study of the traffic code. In basic education, 40 per cent of the timetable will be given over to theoretical teaching and 30 per cent to practical teaching, including an introduction to vocational and artistic subjects. School co-operative and production unit Each school should be organized as a school co-operative with its own production unit. The school co-operative is set up in order to centralize all political, cultural and productive activities of the school. It is, in fact, a society of students, managed by themselves, with the help of an adult and in collaboration with the teachers in order to carry out common activities at three levels: - patriotic education, return to traditional culture and cultural activities in general; - physical education and sports; - agricultural, craft and cultural production. The production unit will be integrated within the global teaching programmes to avoid duplication of school production with other educational activities of the school. Production will have an 34

36 agricultural bearing (in 80 to 90 per cent of the cases) or will be in the field of craftsmanship. At the end of the period of basic education, studies will no longer be sanctioned by a diploma. Thanks to the continuous assessment of learning, the results will be recorded on individual cards and combined with suitable tests. Thus, the pupil will be followed up during the whole of his schooling. At the end of the stage (between 10 and 11 years) the child will be guided with advice from a guidance council, either towards the polytechnic complex where he will learn a trade corresponding to the needs of the State, in accordance with his aptitudes and desires, or to the first stage of middle-level education. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE REFORM The above, then, is the essential content of the Reform as far as basic education in concerned. In the two years since the Reform was proposed, and in the one year since it was adopted by the Government, the Ministry of National Education has been working to implement it. The responsible bodies. The Reform had first to be endowed with a legal framework to determine responsibilities for action. The National Council for Education and Research was therefore set up to centralize all proposals concerning education, continuous training and scientific research, to co-ordinate the different structures of education and training, and to control the execution of policy as laid down in the legislation. Various commissions of a technical nature were set up. Thus, for example, a 15-member Technical Commission was formed to establish syllabuses for nursery and basic education. The National Institute for Training and Research in Education has been given the responsibility for educational reform in Benin in the field of educational research, teacher training, experimentation of programmes and other teaching materials. Objectives in basic education for the school year For the school year , various objectives were set in order first to publicize the reform at all social levels. Regarding implementation, preliminary studies were made of the child's knowledge within his environment and the use of national languages. 35

37 In the course of the year , history and geography syllabuses at basic education level were cleared of their alienating content; the new syllabuses were studied at the level of each school, each district, each school division and each province. The syllabuses for most subjects have been laid down recently by commissions meeting for the purpose. The reduction of schooling period from six to five years makes it necessary to establish a method for teaching French as a foreign and second language which will be used for the time being as the medium of instruction. Educational instructions and directives will enable French to be taught in the first year of the New School based on the existing timetable. For the existing elementary and middle levels at school, a series of new reading texts, in keeping with national policy and with literary and aesthetic education, were considered and their publication is envisaged as from Pending the application of new methods of keeping check on knowledge acquired, the examinations for the Certificate of Elementary Primary Education and for admission into the sixth class have been combined into a single examination. Nearly all the existing schools have already become production units and the process is expected to become general. The introduction of health education and nutrition is contemplated in several experimental schools and the equipment for this will be supplied by the International Centre for Children and by Unicef. Inspectors and educational advisers have undergone refresher courses. As from the beginning of the next school year, the new syllabuses will be carried out in all the introductory courses in the School. Experimentation will begin therefore in this sector but on a nation-wide scale. With the co-operation of the administrative authorities, Parents' Associations, village groups and local authorities^schools will be provided with the basic material necessary for an effective start of the New School as a production unit. Thus, for basic education in rural areas, 5 hectares of land will be allocated to each school. These will be utilized for planting, for example, an orchard, teak forests, casuarina forests, cashew trees, medicinal plants, annual crops or for installing school sports facilities. In urban areas, it is planned to introduce other types of productive activities (e.g. crafts, industries, animal husbandry). 36

38 The formation of school co-operatives has become a reality at the basic education level with 764 co-operatives in 1,300 establishments as of 28 May 1975, with an output of 10 to 20,000 CFA francs; and at middle education level, Í8 co-operatives in 70 school establishments with an average output of approximately 200,000 CFA francs. EVALUATION OF RESULTS AND DIFFICULTIES Thus the reform of the Beninese School, conceived as a global project for development, has been put into practice as a national project organized by representatives of the masses and encouraged by the Revolutionary Military Government and the national political authorities,' meeting together and pulling together. The birth of the New School was the first initiative taken, but it has been followed by others in different national sectors such as rural and co-operative development and in economic and financial affairs, since the project concerns carrying out a harmonious campaign for education, production and development. Establishing a precise balance-sheet of concrete actions when the enterprise has hardly got under way is a difficult task. Of course, the programmes are already established but the particular problems they will pose will not arise until they are put into effect; of course, the old teachers have had refresher courses, and new teachers have been recruited and trained, but their effectivenes or their incompetence can only be judged from their work. However, the launching of the New School has enabled the Government of Benin to ascertain that any revolutionary action inevitably meets with difficulties and obstacles. In the event, these difficulties are connected with publicizing the programme for setting up the system, with ideological or technical unpreparedness of certain teachers still attached to out-dated colonial-school conceptions, and somewhat lacking in confidence faced with the size of the task or of the means required. But in the mobilizing context of a policy of national independence, it has been necessary to plan out the different stages of the implementation of the reform and to wait until all the means are available before going into action. 37

39 V. Reform of the education system in Togo NATURE OF THE REFORM Education is a factor of socio-economic development. The school constitutes the first basic industry which provides the necessary manpower for all sectors of political, cultural, economic and social activities. The school in Togo, as everywhere else in the world, is undergoing a crisis. Several reforms have been attempted in Togo since its accession to independence. These were concerned with primary education, as in 1959 and 1967, secondary education, as in 1965, technical education in 1967 and higher education in All these reforms consisted of slightly modifying the programmes already in existence in the colonial school and which were simply a faithful copy of the French programmes. Today, the main concern is no longer with reforming the content of education, but with the whole system. This reform concerns not only the school but society as a whole. It involves not only the Ministry of National Education, but all the Ministries, the whole nation. This integral reform affects the structures, the programmes and methods, the conditions of installation and of financing, the conditions for success. Reform of the system of training man the whole man is a collective work in which all social strata have collaborated. In order to find solutions to educational problems adapted to the national realities, the Togolese Government set up in 1970 an Executive Council for National Education (Conseil supérieur de l'éducation nationale). This interministerial Council consists of the responsible officials from the Ministry of National Education, the Ministry of Planning, the Ministry of Public Health and Social Affairs, the Ministry of Youth, Sport, Culture and Scientific Research..., the representatives of denominational schools, the representatives of trade unions, of the Parents' Association, and of the National Union of Togolese Women. 38

40 The Council defined the basic principles of the New School and organized a nation-wide opinion poll covering all social strata of the country. This inquiry was conducted throughout the country with a sample of 10,000 persons from a population of 2,000,000 inhabitants, from March to May It covered four categories of social strata which were asked to give their opinions on the major options of the new school by replying to questionnaires set out by the Executive Council for National Education. The first category concerned the pupils from the middlelevel courses in their second year of primary education, pupils in the third, first and final classes of secondary education, and pupils in specialized schools. It also concerned the Togolese students who were at the University of Lome or at other universities in Africa, Europe, America or Asia. The second category was made up of teachers of all levels, from primary to university, whether they were employed in private teaching institutions or public, denominational or secular schools. The third category comprised other citizens who had a knowledge of French, as the questionnaires were set out in this language. The fourth category comprised the illiterates, who were found mostly in the rural areas and who made up the majority of the Togolese population. A team of teachers and rural activists helped the illiterates to fill out the questionnaire. The 10,000 completed questionnaires enabled the Executive Council for National Education to make concrete proposals for reform of the system of education. OBJECTIVES OF THE NEW SCHOOL The new school, which will come into being as a result of the reform of the education system, will be democratic. Up to the age of 15 years, education will be compulsory and free for children of both sexes. In 1975, the school attendance rate was 60 per cent, i.e. only 60 per cent of school-age children went to school. The remaining 40 per cent were forced to join the already considerable number of illiterates. The new school should also remedy the regional disparity in respect of schooling because today in Togo the attendance rate varies according to the administrative constituencies from 95 to 22 per cent. 39

41 It should remedy also the inequality of opportunity for schooling. At present, the figures show: - 1 girl for every 2 boys in primary education and in technical institutions; - 1 for every 3 in lower secondary education; - 1 for every 5 in upper secondary education; - 1 for every 10 at university. Moreover, the new school will be mixed: girls and boys will receive the same'education. More profitably, it will seek to avoid the wastage in schooling amounting at present to 33 per cent in primary education, i.e. only one in every three pupils goes on to a higher class at the end of the school year. The new school will have no wastage, thanks to the institution of guidance by teachers and educational psychologists, based on the aptitudes of each pupil. This will involve solving several problems such as teaching staff, teaching material, and evaluation. The unmarried mother will no longer be systematically expelled from school as was formerly the practice. She will be reintegrated into the school on the advice of the head of the establishment after consultation with the teachers, the parents and the social worker, so that the interests of the child are safeguarded. Special establishments will be created for handicapped children. The new school will be adapted to the developing environment. This adaptation to national and African realities will be marked by the rehabilitation of national cultural values and of African languages. It will stress the study of the environment and integrated teaching so that the school can play its proper role as leader in the locality. The school should be a catalyst for economic and social development in the locality. The new school should create the future citizen according to a well-defined profile: which means, in fact, forming a complete citizen - well-balanced, open-minded, full of initiative and fitted for action to transform the environment. It should aim to introduce the educated citizen into active life and put an end to training unemployable people as it does today. It should therefore adapt the school structures to the labour needs, should create apprenticeship centres and vocational establishments at every articulation of the school system. 40

42 The new system of education ought therefore to integrate itself into the economic and social development policy laid down by the State. STRUCTURE OF THE NEW SCHOOL The school resulting from the reform of the education system will consist of four levels: - the first level covers the nursery school (3 years) and the primary school (6 years); - the second level will be equivalent to the first stage of the present secondary school (4 years); - the third level will correspond to the second stage of the secondary school (3 years); - and the fourth level will correspond to the present higher education (4 to 7 years). First level education The nursery school. Children will be admitted at the age of two years for a period of three years. Teaching will be in the national language of the locality in order not to break away too abruptly from the linguistic environment. Primary school. Children enter at the age of five years for a period of six years. There will be three stages of two years each. Teaching at second level This comprises two stages of two years each. The observation stage constitutes a common core curriculum. All pupils who have completed the first level schooling will automatically enter this level. The guidance stage - the pupils here are guided into different types of establishments according to their aptitudes and the needs of national development: ' - General secondary schools, - Technical secondary schools, - Agricultural secondary schools, - Arts and crafts secondary schools. 41

43 At the end of second level teaching, school attendance is no longer compulsory. After the guidance stage the pupils can continue their training at the third level or enter directly into working life, plying the trade for which they have been trained. On completion, those who are too young for work, in existing legal terms, will receive two years' further training in a centre open to all. Teaching at third level Pupils will be admitted, on merit, for a period of three years. This level consists of: - general schools, technical schools, agricultural schools, arts and crafts schools; - specialized schools: National School of Midwifery, National School for Medical Auxiliaries, National Centre for Social Training, Teacher Training College, National Institute for Youth and Sports (stage B). At the end of third level education, pupils can go on to fourth level education or enter active life. Teaching at fourth level This comprises institutes of advanced studies and university faculties. All the establishments for education and vocational training will be placed under the authority of the Ministry of National Education. The policy for training in the specialized schools will be laid down in collaboration with the ministries concerned. Each level of teaching will have its General Directorate with special departments. The co-ordination of the activities of all the Directorates will be the responsibility of the General Secretariat of the Ministry of National Education. SYLLABUSES AND METHODS These should aim at training a citizen able to contribute to the country's political, cultural, economic and social promotion - a 42

44 citizen who will not be frustrated or alienated - an authentic African. Education will be concrete, based on a study of the environment leading to a broad outlook on the rest of the world. Syllabuses axe to be adapted to the national realities by means of three operations: - suppression of all that is purely academic, of all that is n not immediately practical; - lightening of syllabuses; - introduction of new disciplines: national languages and African languages will be taught. Each discipline will be seen as part of the fight against under-development. In geography, for example, stress will be placed on the knowledge of the country's resources and real potential. History will be that of Africa, seen with the eyes of Africans. In natural sciences, the main concern will be to know the environment and the possibilities of exploitation which it offers. Economic activities at the school will have an important place: fields and school gardens, small-scale livestock breeding, craftsmanship, etc. At the primary school, two languages will be taught simultaneously throughout Togo: Eve in the south and Kabye in the north. At the second level of education, the pupil in the south, in addition to Eve, will learn Kabye as a second language while the pupil in the north will, in addition to Kabye, learn Eve as a second language. The national languages will be studied up to university level. A National Institute of Linguistics will be set up for the scientific study of these languages. The national languages have been'introduced in the syllabuses as disciplines and French will remain the language of instruction. At a later stage, teaching in the national languages may be envisaged, with French taking its place as a foreign language. From third level onwards, African languages such as those advocated by the Organization of African Unity (OAU) or those of regional politico-economic groups will be taught. From the first level of education the following subjects will also be introduced: 43

45 - African literature; - introduction to practical life which should give pupils an accurate knowledge of the technical artifacts in their environment ; - civic instruction; - traffic code; - first aid; - sex education; - home economics, for pupils of both sexes, comprising: sewing, child welfare, hygiene for mother and child, health education and nutrition, etc. Cookery will emphasize Togolese dishes by making use of Togolese produce and utensils. School fields and gardens will support this orientation. From the second level of education onwards, English will be introduced from the first year, and physics-chemistry from the third year. In the third level of education, philosophy will be introduced from the first year, as well as military training. German and Spanish as well as African languages will be offered as options. At the fourth level of education, the university will be truly Togolese and African, training qualified professionals to meet the needs of the country. It will award Togolese qualifications and will work in close collaboration with the other African universities. Methods have also to be renewed in accordance with the reform of the education system. This involves new teacher-pupil relationships, to put an end to the academic and dogmatic teaching familiar at present where the pupil 'only records his master's voice'. The teacher in the new school will be, first and foremost, a leader, ensuring rational and effective organization of team work in the interests of the group. He will provide integrated teaching: the pupil should have an over-all view of the curriculum and no longer a view of the details of the isolated syllabuses. The new school will call upon other specialists according to their competence. Even illiterate peasants who have something to teach the pupils on the subject of African pharmacopoeia, traditions and customs, music and dancing, will come to the school just as the 44

46 pupils will go to them. The school will no longer be confined to the privileged, but will be open to the whole locality, indeed to the whole region. The study of the environment will be conceived as the educational basis of all teaching, as a means of training pupils with a view to transforming the environment. At the new school, self-discipline will be practised: this voluntary discipline will be a contract - worked out, approved and respected by all. The purpose of any sanctions should be to encourage or correct the pupil. At the new school, continuous assessment will be used to keep check on the knowledge acquired by the pupil, his behaviour and his particular aptitudes. This continuous assessment will be noted in a school record which will follow the pupil throughout his school career. It will permit, at the primary school for example, automatic passage from the first year to the second, from the third year to the fourth and from the fifth year to the sixth. Classes will bè repeated only in exceptional cases and then only in the second, fourth or sixth years. With the co-operation of the educational psychologists, the new school will provide continuous guidance for pupils. At the end of the first level, pupils will be guided towards second level schools, in accordance with the results of the continuous assessment. There will be no wastage at this level, for the pupil who is good in agriculture may not be good in mathematics or physics; a pupil who is weak in history and geography may be competent at sports. At school, competition will be encouraged as a means of stimulation to keep pupils mentally alert and to motivate them towards better participation in their own training. Competition will be encouraged among pupils of the same class, among classes of the same school, among educational establishments of the same locality. In the course of the school week in an establishment, results of the class will be announced: their sports performances, their theatrical presentations, exhibitions of the best work in art or craftsmanship, visits to school fields and gardens. Rewards will be made to groups and not to individuals in order to encourage and develop team spirit. Children's education in the new school implies close collaboration between the school, the family and other bodies. The Parents' Association will give advice on the organization of 45

47 friendly societies, school canteens and medical services, and will participate in the work of school building. School committees will examine all matters concerning school installations, parents 1 participation in the life of the school. THE CONDITIONS FOR SUCCESS OF THE NEW SCHOOL " The reform of the education system is a national task. Consequently, a policy of intensive mass information is necessary on the nature and aims of the new school so that the population feels concerned about the success of this common task. The new school will be compulsory and free. In the first and second levels of education, the State and other national bodies will provide the financing. Parents will also contribute. While relying essentially on its own resources, the State may also seek bilateral or multilateral external aid. The cultural policy should aim at reinstating national traditions and customs in order to put an end to the appreciation only of those values foreign to Africa. Economic and social conditions are the key to the success of the new school. In fact, very close relations should exist between the school and the other sectors of activity to facilitate the integration of the educated citizen into working life. Unless agriculture regains esteem, for example, the flight from the land will continue with all its economic and social consequences. The land must feed man, agricultural products must be more highly esteemed, so that pupils leaving the agricultural secondary school can return to the land. The new school should have the benefit of the best material conditions. Teaching materials will be adapted and, as far as possible, designed and manufactured locally. Anything which cannot be procured locally should be bought from neighbouring countries for, from the outset, there should be horizontal co-operation among African States. The numbers of pupils in each class will be reduced to 50 at the most from primary school onwards while, according to the locality, 15 children will be sufficient for founding a school. School canteens will enable those pupils who wish to do so to have their meals at reasonable prices. The State will take collective charge of the students' obligatory needs: cultural and educational equipment, university res- 46

48 taurants, medical services, transport. Needy students will receive standard assistance. The teaching staff should have the benefit of satisfactory material conditions so that the school is no longer a stop-gap measure until more lucrative positions are attained. The recruitment of teachers should take into account not only their general culture but also their aptitude for teaching. The new school will recognize only those teachers trained at the teacher training colleges; the teaching assistants and monitors should gradually be eliminated. All teachers will receive in-service training through refresher or correspondence courses. The setting up of the new school which started in September 1975 will be a continuous process effected over a period of ten to fifteen years according to availability of personnel, capital and the capacity of the schools which Togo will establish. Some pilot projects have already been started, such as the opening of the Second of February School at Lomé, the first school at the third level. While the new school is being established, the Executive Council for National Education will work constantly to adapt the plans to the realities so as to avoid any conflicts, regressions or doubts. 47

49 VI. Innovative reform in Ethiopia Introduction The Ethiopian people have not been happy for a long time with the academic-oriented education system that they had. After 6, 8 or 12 years of education, the products of the system, by and large, did not possess useful saleable skills. The great majority of school-age children did not have the opportunity to attend schools. In other words, the system was expensive, elitist and was not contributing to the country's economic and social development. Hence, Ethiopian educators' concern has led to a number of attempts to reform the system, as the following quotation from the Education sector review aptly testifies. 'Development of the Ethiopian educational system has been marked by the spirit of constructive dissatisfaction and quest for further improvement, rather than contentment with the progress being made. Concerns about the course of education were expressed, beginning in the early 1950s. These concerns, which were most fully articulated by educators and officials responsible for education, led to the creation of a number of study groups. A long-term planning committee was established in 1955 to appraise the educational system and this group submitted a report, "A Ten-Year Plan for the Controlled Expansion of Ethiopian Education". In 1966, a committee was appointed by the Council of Ministers to report on the operation of the educational system. Other committees were appointed from time to time to assess specific problems. 1 Dissatisfaction with the education system continued, focusing largely on its inability to satisfy the aspirations of the majority of the people, and on the inadequacy of the preparation of those passing through its pipeline. ' The last few years in particular have witnessed a sharply critical debate among educators, parents and government officials, which has been manifested also in student demands, often echoed by parents. The Government responded positively with two significant measures which attested to its determination and favourable disposition to make fundamental changes. These were the establishment of 48

50 a National Commission for Education and the launching of the Education sector review 3 both of which served as forums where the national debate culminated. Although the Education sector review recommendations were farsighted and in accordance with the needs of the country, the study was rejected by teachers and parents alike. This was not because of its content and recommendations. At that time the country was not ready for the radical change envisaged in the document. Reform in other sectors should have accompanied the Education sector recommendations. Since the Sector review, far-reaching social and political changes have taken place. 1. The historic Ethiopian Revolution spearheaded by the Armed Forces was launched in February 1974, and resulted in the removal of the former bureaucratic and feudal regime which had become a serious constraint on national progress. 2. The old government was superseded by the Provisional Military Administrative Council which renounced self-seeking and corruption under the slogan Ethiopia Tihdem Hibretsebawinett or socialism. 3. The new government has promulgated four basic policy instruments which have guided"the fundamental structural changes on which rapid development and social justice can be based. The first, the Declaration of 20 December 1974, proclaimed Ethiopian Hibretsebawinett (social:..':,.»), expressed in the declaration as 'equality, self-reliance, the dignity of labour, the supremacy of the common good and the indivisibility of Ethiopian unity'. Five fundamental principles were established: a) All Ethiopians, of whatever religion, language, sex or local affinity shall live together in equality, fraternity, harmony and unity under the umbrella of their country. Ethiopia will become a country in which justice, equality and freedom will prevail. b) The boundless idolatry of private gain which has chained our people to poverty and which has so humiliated our country in the eyes of the world will be eradicated. Henceforth, the interests of the community will be paramount. c) The rights of self-administration which our people had exercised at the village, district and regional levels, and which had been usurped, will be restored. The central government will be responsible for matters of State of national or fundamental importance and give assistance and support to communities exercising self-administration. 49

51 d) Man is meant to work to support himself and his community. Human labour will consequently be accorded a respected place in our social framework. Conversely, exploitation and parasitism will be socially condemned'modes of living. e) Above all, the unity of Ethiopia will be the sacred faith of all our people. Declaration on economic policy The basic economic policy that 'the common good takes precedence over the pursuit of private gain 1 was further elaborated and implemented in the second policy instrument, published on 7 February 1975 in the Declaration on Economic Policy of Socialist Ethiopia, which brought under public control or ownership a range of key economic resources for the benefit of the mass of the population. In addition to banks and insurance companies which had been nationalized previously, all large-scale industrial enterprises were brought under public control. Some enterprises, such as mining and precious metals, were designated for joint operation between government and private capital. Nationalization of rural lands On 4 March 1975, the third basic structural change was initiated with the proclamation to provide for the nationalization of rural lands. This effectively abolished the feudal system and placed the basic factor of production - land - in the hands of the rural masses. Hired labour and tenancy were abolished. Equally significant were the provisions in the proclamation which required the formation of peasants' associations grouping units of cultivators on units of 80 hectares, and pastorálists on land units appropriate to development requirements. These associations and groups of associations provide an essential framework for a variety of development activities including education arid the bases for popular participation in these activities. Thus the nationalization of rural lands has cut away the final tool of feudal bondage with which urban landlords (often investing the proceeds of rural exploitation in towns) had been able to exploit the urban workers. As in rural locations, urban dwellers have been provided with community associations for the implementation of the Urban Land Proclamation. These community associations or 'Rebeles' will become the focal point for development activities and popular participation. 50

52 The Zemeoha Strong emphasis has been given to the mobilization of the labour forces for development programmes in both rural and urban areas. An important innovation in this regard has been the involvement of youth in the development process through the Campaign for Development through Co-operation, known as the 'Zemecha 1, which was launched in November Some 60,000 senior secondary and university students together with their teachers have been deployed in the rural areas to teach the people what they know, to acquaint them with the principles and policies of this revolution, to assist them in programmes that will ensure that the struggle to overcome poverty, disease and ignorance will quickly be won, to work with them in the formation of basic peasant associations and, most importantly, to learn from them their desires and aspirations in a working experience which will offset the negative effects of formal educational curricula and urban living. Thus, within a period of one year, the political, economic and social climate within which the education system is set has changed radically. Briefly set out in the following pages are some innovative approaches to education in Ethiopia. (a) Teacher training. It is tentatively planned that elementary teachers' training will be one of the options to be offered in all secondary classes (three or four years), meaning that high school graduates will enter teaching directly. In-service courses will be offered to teachers by mobile tutors. (b) Use of vernacular in the elementary grades. (c) The use of the school as a productive unit. Depending on the locality of a school, it will be used for producing so as eventually to become self-reliant and self-sufficient. In agricultural areas each school is planned to have at least ten hectares of land. In urban areas schools are to be attached to garages, industries or other productive units. (d) Parents will be directly responsible for the administration of their schools. (e) The use of mass media to substitute teachers. (f) The use of correspondence for secondary education. (g) The use of panels for research, for mass materials' production, and for evaluation. (h) Research on reduced instructional time, (i) Production of educational modules. 51

53 ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO BASIC EDUCATION The proposed National Basic Education Programme for Ethiopia Background. The principles underlying the changes now taking place in Ethiopian education were outlined in a number of documents issued by the Provisional Military Administrative Council. These documents stated the policy of the Government to wipe out ignorance, disease and to provide a free, fundamental education for all citizens in the country. The Government has determined its general policy with regard to education and has committed itself to a programme of democratization, decentralization and regeneration. It has also accepted the principle of lifelong education for all. The priority is, therefore, a mass education programme which is oriented towards the provision of a minimum educational package for everyone and with particular emphasis on the needs of the illiterate 90 per cent of the population (mostly the rural people) who have been so neglected in the past. It has also been laid down that education should be directed towards the rural environment and should be developed not for its own sake but as an essential instrument of economic and social progress. An academic and theoretical type of education has been deemed inappropriate for the country as a whole and, in future, attempts will be made to ensure that learning is work-oriented, practical and relevant to Ethiopian needs and situations. The education given is also expected to ensure that a spirit of self-help and self-reliance is created. Objectives of the basic education programme To establish a programme of basic education for all citizens of Ethiopia in accordance with the Government's policy as outlined in such documents as 'The philosophy of Ethiopia Tikdem', 'The origins and future direction of the movement', 'The proclamation of land reform of 4 March 1975'; to assist in the development of a decentralized system of education which would, in turn, be more democratic and which would place more responsibility on local associations, teachers, parents, etc.; to train the large numbers of teachers capable of implementing the new education system based on the farmers' associations and designed to reach 100 per cent of the relevant age group of the population; 52

54 to retrain the teachers already in service and to enable them to co-operate in the implementation of the new education system. Teacher education for universal basic education Since universal education is the aim of this policy, an estimate needs to be made of the number of teachers required. Such an estimate has been made by the teacher education panel on the basis of the expected numbers of farmers' associations. Assuming that there will be about 30,000 such associations, a very large number of teachers are going to be needed. It is confidently expected that, so long as innovative techniques and the mass media are used in the implementation of the programme, meeting the demand for this large number will be quite feasible. The Zemecha (Campaign for Development through Co-operation) participants will play a major part in the initial stage of the basic education programme. Currently there are an estimated 60,000 participants and it is assumed that the Zemecha will continue at least for the next five years. This will provide a total number of ,000 Zemecha participants; and if each participant effectively teaches 25 people there will be approximately 7,000,000 educated Ethiopians in five years. Materials and facilities It would be impossible, for financial reasons alone, to assume that all the children who would enrol in the new schools that would be established all over the country would have sufficient textbooks. The cost of paper, the problems involved in writing new textbooks and in publishing them, all made it unlikely that large numbers of new textbooks would be widely available in the immediate future. This is not regarded, however, as an obstacle to the development of the programme since it is considered that the priority was materials for the teacher rather than books for the children. Thus, for a number of reasons, it is considered justified to concentrate on training materials for the teachers to enable them to adopt a more creative and imaginative approach to education. Withi the necessity of having to establish thousands of new schools, materials should be developed for teachers who would be obliged to work with the minimum of facilities and equipment. Farmers' associations would not, in the first stages at least, be able to use large amounts of capital on school construction. As conditions improve and as more capital becomes available, they may 53

55 be able to, improve their school buildings, possibly with government collaboration. But in the beginning it is to be expected that teachers will have to exercise their ingenuity, imagination and creativity, in order to overcome the constraints that they will find in remote rural areas. Again, this is not seen as an obstacle to the development of the programme, but rather as the challenge needed to ensure that the schools teach self-help and self-reliance to the large numbers of pupils who will be benefiting from the new education system. The project The training scheme for this programme has to be an accelerated one. It will involve the recruitment and short orientation of teacher educators (mainly already available) who will be responsible for the training of large numbers of teachers at training centres throughout the country. An essential part of the training of the teachers in the field will be an introduction to the use and development of teaching units based on the resources of the local environment. This will be supported by broadcasts related to the units which will be transmitted regularly by the mass media centre as part of the follow-up training given while the teachers are actually on the job under the supervision of the teacher educators. In order to orient the schools towards economic and social development rather than individual academic advancement, emphasis will be given to the following objectives: (a) positive attitudes towards co-operation with and help to one's family and fellow men, towards work and community and national development; (b) functional literacy and numeracy; (c) a scientific outlook and an elementary understanding of the processes of nature; (d) fundamental knowledge and skills for raising a family and running a household; (e) functional knowledge and skills for earning a living; (f) functional knowledge and skills for civic participation. Basic education for the masses The ultimate aim of the entire programme is to make basic education accessible to all Ethiopians, regardless of ethnic origin, religion or sex, within a reasonable time. The target groups are: 54

56 (a) (b) (c) school-age children; young people who have had little or no schooling; working-age adults. Basic education is an essential human right, of which the majority of Ethiopian people have been deprived in the past. Because this programme has necessarily to be carried out at great speed in order to make up in the shortest possible time for the deficiencies of the past, this does not mean that the type of education to be offered is a stop-gap or an inferior kind of education. Furthermore, it is important to note that, although this kind of education is highly suitable to Ethiopia in its present stage of development, it is also attracting interest, at the present time, all over the world as meeting the educational needs for developing and industrialized countries alike. Basic education with emphasis on work-oriented adult education The overall objective of the basic education programme is to produce self-reliant, self-sufficient, literate, skilled and healthy citizens who will actively participate and contribute to the country's political, economic and social development. For operational purposes, basic education has been defined as meaning: (a) an education that will provide the skills necessary to earn a living, an education to be provided regardless of sex or age; (b) a work-oriented literacy and numeracy education to assist participants to improve their skills, acquire new skills and apply them; (c) an education that will lay the foundation for future development of the necessary human resources, etc. The programme will include civics, agriculture, cottage-industries, co-operatives, literacy and numeracy, home-living education, and health and physical education. Programme details will be contained in the 'curriculum' and instructional materials. Though the programme is designed for adults, youth and children, depth of content and duration will depend on the maturity and readiness of the participants. Methods of delivery will include the use of some local languages, radio, television, face-to-face instruction and demonstration, rural newspapers, and correspondence. It should be noted that all of these methods may not always be applicable in a given environment. 55

57 In a period of five years over 500 community skill training centres will be constructed. The centres will be used for.adult, youth and children education by rearranging the timetables. In addition to the centres, existing primary, junior secondary, senior secondary schools, teacher training institutes, health centres, and the like will be 1 used for the same purpose. The 500 centres will also serve as offices for sub-district level peasants' associations. To facilitate the smooth implementation of the programme, inter-ministerial co-ordinating committees at a national, provincial, district (Awraja), sub-district (Wereda) and local levels, will be established. Peasants' associations or co-operative societies of urban dwellers will be in charge of the programmes at the local levels with the necessary guidelines and technical assistance from the inter-ministerial co-ordinating committees. Participants will be evaluated on the basis of new skills they acquired: ability to read and write, manipulate numbers, positive attitude towards manual labour, knowledgeable and active participation in peasants' associations and co-operative societies of urban dwellers, etc. EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AS AN SYSTEM INNOVATIVE INPUT OF THE EDUCATION The use and development of educational technology during the past few years has evolved beyond the experimental stage. The establishment of the national centre has enabled the Ministry of Education to develop technical capabilities and trained manpower: to produce, disseminate and evaluate broadcast programmes and support materials and, above all, to sum up all findings in a comprehensive technical survey, as a blueprint for action. The priority aspect of educational technology as an innovative input of the education system is radio. Through the use of three 1 kw medium-wave transmitters in the northern, central and south regions of the country, and through a series of evaluations, it has been found that the medium plays a most distinctive role as a catalyst in the educational process. The daily traditional routine is challenged, the talking teacher and the prescribed textbooks are no more the sole sources of knowledge and learning. The broadcast programmes and the supporting materials, as specially devised, have served to bridge the gap between learning and real life. Teachers and students are often quite critical but never passive. 56

58 Experiments on a lesser scale with the use of radio in adult education have indicated an even greater potential. The PSC (Project Support Communication) component of radio application is to ensure participation of the audience and to establish dialogue, thereby overcoming the traditional weakness of one-way communication. The project, which is a priority in the education plan, depends on 11 radio stations located in carefully selected sites. It is: - basically rural-oriented and favours the hitherto inaccessible, remoter regions with lesser infrastructures and services; - tailored for the topography of Ethiopia: the medium-wave frequencies offer reliable reception in limited areas. (High-powered and short-wave transmitters have, among other limitations, the problems of the country's mountains and depressions.); - going to moke technology an -integral part of the education system. (to include non-formal and correspondence courses) and result in a spin-off in regional (rural) technology and a 'transistor revolution 1 ; - most suitable for use of local languages in adult education, for grassroot-level participation and as a regional developmental forum to be used by the extension agents, farmers' associations. INNOVATION IN THE AREA OF SCHOOL CONSTRUCTION In the past, most of the materials for building schools were imported from abroad. As a result, the unit cost for the construction of schools has been very high. In recent years the practice has been to use less imported materials in favour of local materials. The desire for a rapid proliferation of first-level schools, the placing of these schools in-more remote areas and the linking of the schools in a practical sense with other development activities all imply the necessity of a new technology and strategy for rural construction programmes, a need further reinforced by the aims of community self-reliance. This required the introduction of technology appropriate to the rising level of skills in the community and to the building materials found in the locality. The construction of schools will, therefore, be linked to the transmission of skills, knowledge and appropriate technology which will permit cultural advance to take place within the communities and prepare them for maintenance of school units as well as the replication of low-cost building construction. Through this reform about 200 schools have been built and the cost has been reduced by a quarter and more. 57

59 VIL Introduction of the written Somali language On 1 July 1960 the British Somaliland Protectorate and the Italian administered Somali Trusteeship territory were unified. This unification was á historic event for the Somali people, but because of the two territories' colonial heritage the new republic faced tremendous problems. One of these problems was the existence of two official foreign languages, English and Italian. At first, because of sheer necessity and because of political considerations, both languages had to be accommodated. Besides being the official administrative languages, both had to be used as medium of instruction in the schools, English for the schools of the northern region and Italian for the south. In the case of the administration, the use of the two languages created many problems. For example, two people in the same office who could communicate orally could not understand each other when they used the written word. There was also duplication of work, for every office had to have two types of personnel, English-speaking and Italian-speaking, because it was never possible to foresee which language the next correspondent would be using. In order to alleviate this, the Government tried to make all the administrators bilingual. The Government also tried to use translators and interpreters. But all the attempts failed and the dilemma was still there. The education system faced the same difficulties. Besides the incongruities already found in the structure and in the basic educational philosophies of the two systems, there existed the two different languages as media of instruction. Teachers could not be transferred from one region to the other; other Government officials resisted transfers because they would not be able to get schools for their children; there was no common curriculum, let alone textbooks. In a sense there was no union. In 1962, in an attempt to unify the two systems, Arabic was selected as medium of instruction for the elementary schools and English for the intermediate and secondary levels. The structure was also changed and unified. Because more than half of the teaching 58

60 force was Italian-speaking, it became very difficult to retrain such a large number of teachers. They were given short, intensive English courses. Again, this did not solve the problem because half of the population did not understand English. Of course, the importance of written Somali was not forgotten. As a matter of fact many people advocated it and considerable research was being conducted to select a script. In fact, three different scripts were suggested by independent researchers; but people could not agree upon any one orthography. Parliament was also in disagreement and could not decide on one script in case that should lead to a political crisis. No government of the pre-revolutionary era was ready to risk its own interests by solving this serious national problem..thus Somali remained an unwritten language and the aforementioned language problem remained in both the administration and the education system. Introduction of written Somali The 21 October Revolution of 1969 brought the dispute on the choice of a script to an end. The new regime in their first charter promised to take the necessary steps towards the development of a written Somali language. This shows how the new regime saw, at the very beginning, the importance of written Somali, for the process of national development. Fourteen months later, in January 1971, a National Language Commission was created. This commission consisted of linguists, teachers, poets, etc., some of whom had previously conducted considerable research in the field of Somali language. This was, however, confined to Somali literature - anthologies of poems, short stories, etc. The main concern of this commission was: (1) to write textbooks for elementary schools, (2) to write Somali grammar books and (3) to write a basic Somali dictionary. Since the selection of a script was considered political, the members of the commission were told to use any script they liked, and leave the decision to select for the Government. In six months the commission finished the task given to it, and the outcome was several books for the elementary schools, a grammar book and one dictionary of about 5,000 words. On the third anniversary of the October Revolution (21 October 1972), the President of the Supreme Revolutionary Council announced that the Somali language would officially be written in modified Roman script. Thus, the long-disputed question of selecting a script for the writing of the Somali language was solved once and for all. 59

61 The next logical step was to give the adopted script a solid basis from which it could be diffused in the whole society in accordance with the Government policy which aimed at a maximum communication between the masses and all State institutions. The two natural places for such a base were the schools and the administrative machinery. Immediately after the adoption of the Roman alphabet for the writing of Somali it was decided to teach all Government employees the new script within a period of three months, after which they were to take a written test. Thus, on 21 January 1973 the examination was conducted and written Somali became the official administrative language. At the same time it became the medium of instruction for the elementary schools. The revolutionary Government closed all doors to any factors that might slow down the implementation. The newly written language was to replace all foreign languages in all Government correspondence and records. No one was allowed to receive or send any letter or document other than those written in Somali. This immediate application of Somali had a positive result. The administrators and teachers who now had no option but to write or teach in Somali began to be creative and to develop a working language. In the case of administrators, the imitation of foreign methods of writing administrative matters proved to be impractical, so they were forced to develop their own way of writing. This led to the emergence of written Somali administrative language that is still in the process of development. The Somali Institute of Development, Administration and Management is responsible for the development of administrative language. It has already developed manuals for letter and report writing, Somali short-hand and a Somali-English-Italian glossary. In the case of schools, the curriculum development centre of the Ministry of Education hurriedly compiled a terminology manual for all the translatable subjects taught in the elementary schools. This is now extended to intermediate and secondary levels and is still developing. Aware of the successes reached because of the radical policy followed in introducing written Somali, President Siyaad said 'Some elements thought that English and Italian would also be used for a while side by side with Somali. But our pragmatic policy to eliminate all foreign correspondence from official use forced everyone to implement the Somali script. This brought quick returns of suc- 60

62 cess. The practice of using foreign language had made it impossible in many African countries to fully implement their own languages. 1 'Urban Literacy Campaign Encouraged by the positive results reached in the Somalization of the medium of instruction and the administrative language, the Revolutionary Government, on 8 March 1973, inaugurated a National Literacy Campaign. This followed the same radical policy used in the Somalization of the administrative language and the medium of instruction. It was decided to mobilize all educated Somalis as teachers and all illiterate Somalis as students. The motto was 'If ypu know, teach - if you don't know, learn.' The campaign was to last two years, the first year for the urban areas, the second year for the rural areas. Immediately after the announcement of the campaign, a National Literacy Committee was established. This committee consisted of the three Vice-Presidents and three Secretaries of State. Their responsibility was to formulate a general policy for the campaign. There was also a National Implementation Committee, chaired by the Secretary of State for Education, which was responsible for the co-ordination of the campaign activities at national level. Similar committees were formed at district level. The district and locallevel committees, making'use of the politico-administrative divisions of cities, were to mobilize manpower and provide facilities for the campaign. For example, in Mogadishu, the 14 political orientation centres and their branches were' responsible for the creation of all manpower and material facilities necessary for the operation under the supervision of the central government. This turned the campaign into a multi-dimensional 'self-help scheme'. At the end of the year the Ministry of Education gave 400,000 as the number of people made literate during the campaign. It should, however, be added here that even if this figure was based on good statistical data, it would not have been sufficient evidence of the success of the campaign, because adult literacy learning is not purely a technical action. It is a cultural action which should help men to understand each other better and to orient themselves correctly in the world in which they live. Nevertheless, it is reassuring to have another 400,000 literate people who are at least able to read the daily newspaper, and hence to have some idea of what is going on in their Government and country. 61

63 The accomplishments reached by the urban literacy campaign inspired new ideas and creativities. This was apparent in the second phase of the campaign, the National Literacy Campaign in the rural areas which was extended to an over-all advancement of the rural people. The Rural Development Campaign The Rural Development Campaign which was launched on 1 August 1974 was a continuation of the National Literacy Campaign introduced by the Revolutionary Government. Besides the original idea of eradicating illiteracy, the Rural Development Campaign had to include health services for both people and livestock. Another component ; of the campaign was a human and livestock census. Before the start of the campaign, a technical committee was set up to formulate policies and give advice as to the best methods by which the campaign could be implemented. This was no easy task because: (a) out of a total population of 5,000,000, over 70 per cent are nomads scattered over an area of 650,000 square kilometres, and the transportation system in the rural area is very underdeveloped; (b) how to provide enough teachers to this large population was another problem to be considered; (c) a huge administrative set-up was required for the implementation of the campaign; (d) financing and other facilities had to be provided. After long discussions on these matters the committee proposed to complete the campaign in one year as originally decided. They also concluded that the only teachers to fill such a huge gap (20,000 teachers were needed) would be intermediate and secondary students and their teachers. This proposal later necessitated the historic decision to close all schools for one year. Thus, the campaign started with President Siyaad's announcement: 'As we have pledged last year, we will embark on a mass literacy campaign. As the practice has been thus far, the execution will be effected by self-reliance and our principle of 'Iskaa-Wax-u-qabso' (self-help). We will use every nook and corner as a school; we will conduct classes under shady trees, in front of the nomad's tents and beside watering wells.' Besides the original goals, additional benefits were expected of this campaign: the strengthening of national unity by demolishing the barriers between students/teachers and the nomads; a new awareness of the problems confronting the rural masses and of the need for their solution. At the beginning of the campaign, 1,257,779 62

64 students were registered, but only 912,797 sat for the final test; and of these 785,093 passed the test. Now that the campaign is over, as a realization of the original goal, and as a follow-up, the Government intends to establish ten centres in nomadic villages, markets and other places frequented by the nomads. These centres will be pilot projects and, if found successful, will be the bases for the establishment of formal nomadic education. In addition to this, various committees have recently been appointed to launch a new follow-up programme. It is a large-scale programme involving almost all Government organs, and some of the activities are already in full swing. Problems and shortcomings The foregoing discussion of the benefits and achievements must not lead us to overlook the problems and shortcomings that are bound to arise in conducting such a huge campaign. The deficiencies can be summarized in the following points : 1. According to a survey conducted by the Somali Institute of Development, Administration and Management, 41 per cent of the teachers were 15 to 19 years old and 44 per cent between 20 and 29. Only 14 per cent were 30 years or older. This age problem was detrimental in the latter phase of the campaign because the young teachers were not accustomed to the hardships encountered in rural areas. Some of them defected back to the towns and to their parents. 2. The lack of teaching places and materials made it necessary to use many places that were not suitable for learning. 3. A serious problem arose from the shortage and non-suitability of the textbooks used in the classes. The book which was intended to serve as a primer turned out to be far too pretentious for beginners. 4. Lack of adequately experienced inspectors or teachers was another problem. 5. There was lack of proper documentation. The information gathered was inadequate and sometimes contradictory. Textbook writing During the same year, and hand in hand with the literacy campaign, there was also the textbook writing campaign. The dozen or so curriculum development officers and more than 250 secondary school 63

65 teachers were assigned Co write 150 titles. These included textbooks for all levels, for adults, teachers' manuals, etc. The writing and printing of these books was to take a period of one year. This is the same year when the schools are closed. Since the Government was already involved in the Rural Development Campaign and was not able to finance such a huge project, Unicef offered to pay part of the authorship fees of So. Shs. 3,000/- per title, the writing materials and a per diem allowance of So. Shs. 5/- per person. The Government was to meet the printing costs of 8 million copies at So. Shs. 7/- per copy over a period of four years. All the books are now written and about one-third of them are already printed. The rest are in various stages of the printing process. This campaign also had its problems. First, and before anything was done, each committee had to compile an agreed terminology. These terminologies had to be checked with other committees who might have used the same terms. This was very time-consuming because Somali is basically a nomadic language, and most of the scientific concepts were not represented in it, so the authors had to start from scratch. Another problem was the rewriting and the translation of all the syllabuses. Now that the textbooks are written, the Curriculum Development Centre is preparing for the retraining of teachers. Already the centre has dispatched the compiled terminologies to the teacher-training centres, but the retraining may not start until the middle of \ 64

66 VIII. Distance teaching and mass education, Kenya This paper describes some of the uses of distance teaching media with special reference to developing countries. It is illustrated by a particular example taken from Kenya showing some actual and potential applications of modern educational technology to help solve some pressing problems of education. Some educational problems in developing countries The prevailing problems of education in developing countries of the world are well known - a high rate of illiteracy amongst the adult population, an increase in school enrolment as a result of growing public demand for education, increasing numbers of school leavers who cannot be absorbed into the monetary economy, shortage of qualified and experienced manpower, shortage of finance, shortage of qualified teachers and trainers, and so on. Expansion of educational and training facilities for both youth and adults is one of the urgent needs in these countries. But one thing is clear: the monetary and human resources simply will not be available to allow such expansion to take place by means of traditional schools, classrooms and teachers using traditional methods of instruction. New methods and modern techniques will have to be employed in order to enable existing resources to serve much larger audiences. It will be necessary to up-grade and retrain teachers and other workers without removing them from their places of work for long periods. Space and equipment available will have to be utilized more efficiently, and the facilities, expertise and materials will have to be shared more widely if the educational costs are going to be maintained at about the same proportions as other national development costs. Distance teaching through the use of mass media seems to offer one of the ways of meeting these educational problems and needs. Distance teaching media By definition, the mass media - newspapers, pamphlets, magazines, books, radio, television, films, correspondence courses, etc. - can 65

67 channel the ideas and information of the few (the teachers) to the many (the learners). They can do this over long distances, and the information they carry can readily be updated from time to time. Some of these media (radio, television and film) can cross the literacy barrier: they do not therefore presume education in the formal sense before they can become effective. And by comparison with the cost of providing buildings and staffing for traditional classroom teaching, most of the mass media are cheap. One good teacher or a team of good teachers, for instance, can be multiplied many times over through the use of mass media. Flexibility of media is another advantage - people can study in their own time, and in their living and working places. But the mass media by themselves are not enough for good teaching. They are nearly all one-way channels, and there is a spatial gap- and often a time-lag between communicators and the audience. They tend to be impersonal and offer no way whereby the teachers can respond spontaneously to the individual needs and problems of the learners. It seems likely, therefore, that maximum impact can be achieved by combining different media with face-to-face methods in order to restore the two-way personal communication and sensitivity which are often lacking from the mass media. The correspondence method of instruction is a two-way channel amongst the mass media which is available to most developing countries, and yet, when used alone with individual students, it is often less effective than when it is combined with, say, radio and occasional face-to-face teaching. More recently, correspondence teaching has taken a broader outlook in many countries of the world which are attempting to combine different teaching and learning methods. This multi-media approach has become possible partly by the expansion of the media of mass communication and partly by the extension of the methodological basis of distance, education. The term 'educational technology' goes beyond any particular machine, medium or device. It means a systematic way of designing, carrying out, and evaluating the total process of learning and teaching in terms of specific educational objectives. It employs a combination of human and non-human media to bring about more effective instruction. A system which utilizes all these features of mass media and educational technology has come to be known commonly as 'distance education'. Distance education systems are being used to solve specific problems in many countries. The British Open University is already well known, but other countries have developed their own forms. 66

68 Kenyan example In 1968, the Government of Kenya established the Correspondence Course Unit (CCU) within the Institute of Adult Studies at the University of Nairobi. Priority was given to courses preparing adults, and particularly primary school teachers, for up-grading purposes. The first group to be enrolled for correspondence courses were the lowest professional grade of primary teachers, commonly referred to as 'P3 grade' in Kenya. A P3 teacher will normally have had seven (and in some cases eight) years of primary education and an additional two years of teacher training. To become eligible for promotion to the next higher grade (P2), such a teacher is required to pass a national examination, the Kenya Junior Secondary Examination (KJSE) which is normally taken after two years of secondary education. Thus, the first correspondence courses produced by the CCU were aimed at preparing these teachers, and other adults who had completed primary education, for the KJSE. Apart from the teachers, who comprised about 90 per cent, there were other adults from all walks of life - including clerks, farmers, housewives, members of the armed forces, the police and co-operative staff - and from different parts of the country. The early courses covered the first two years at secondary school level in the following subjects: English, Kiswahili, history, geography, modern mathematics, biology and physical science. To date, some 3,000 students have been enrolled on an average of four subjects each. In 1969, the CCU undertook a second programme to run concurrently with the KJSE courses. This was the unqualified teachers programme which was intended to improve the teaching effectiveness of previously untrained teachers. It consisted of correspondence courses, radio programmes and short residential courses during school holidays. To date, over 10,000 unqualified teachers have successfully completed their up-grading courses and have been awarded a Primary Teachers Certificate. The modus operandi of the CCU involves planned and systematic selection, preparation and presentation of correspondence and other teaching materials, as well as securing and assessing what the student has learnt. Hence, the instructional programme provided by the CCU comprises a synthesis of the following four elements: correspondence study guides, textbooks, teaching materials and experiment kits; supplementary radio broadcasts covering the material in one or more lessons of the study guide; the corrections and comments 67

69 made on students' work by qualified secondary and university teachers; and the occasional face-to-face teaching during short residential courses. The instructional process functions through an efficient mechanism for establishing and maintaining contact between the student, the tutor and the Unit through the system of recruitment, enrolment, distribution of study materials and the handling of lessons and written assignments. The Unit is equipped with its own printing, duplicating and binding facilities, the registration, mailing, records and accounts sections, a self-contained radio recording and production studio and a small science laboratory. The CCU academic staff comprises 12 full-time members who are all appointed under the university's terms of service and supported by a team of typists, secretaries, printers, mailing and records clerks, accountants, totalling about 30. In addition, the CCU draws upon the services of about 50 practising teachers as part-time course markers and writers. The total floor space occupied by the CCU offices and operations amounts to about 1,000 sq.m. At present it is capable of handling about 10,000 students per year, with an equivalent increase in part-time course markers. The CCU has also realized that, apart from the enrolled students, there are other people using its study materials in less formal ways. It is difficult to estimate the number of teachers and other adults who are not registered with the CCU but are. using the study guides and textbooks for their private study. Nevertheless, it seems reasonable to assume that this 'overflow' is quite substantial and that it has some broad social benefit. Similarly, the radio broadcasts have attracted very many casual listeners besides the enrolled students. A survey conducted in 1969 by the 'Voice of Kenya' revealed that there are about half a million adult listeners who listen to the CCU radio broadcasts regularly. The staff of CCU have carried out evaluation studies and researches which have revealed some interesting things about correspondence students and the effectiveness of the CCU programmes. A number of recommendations for improvement have been implemented in the CCU operations, based on the students' comments, criticisms and suggestions. A number of analyses have been carried out on the students' performance in the national examinations. The results reveal that candidateá 'who have studied with the CCU have performed as well as school candidates sitting the same examination, and better than private candidates studying on their own. Drop-out rates of the CCU 68

70 students have averaged between 15 and 25 per cent. There is no doubt that the majority of the CCU students are highly motivated by the immediate benefits in terms of promotion in their jobs and the concomitant increases in salaries. Many of them have also become aware of the urgent need to upgrade themselves in their professions as employment is becoming more competitive. The CCU has realized over the few years of its operation that there are some advantages as well as shortcomings in the use of distance teaching methods generally. The first advantage is related directly to the term used, namely, that it has operated over long distances and has catered for a widely scattered population. It can thus be a way of bringing education to those without physical access to normal schools or colleges. The second advantage has been its flexibility: people who already have jobs can study in their own time and in their homes or places of work. Distance education therefore offers opportunities to those people whose family and job commitments prevent their undertaking full-time study, and whose education and job skills need improvement. Teachers and extension workers are the best examples of this category. For them, distance education seems to be the only convenient means through which they can improve their knowledge and skills and thereby upgrade themselves. Flexibility manifests itself in another way. Once a particular distance education system has been set up, complete with its operations network, it is relatively easy to change or modify course content as dictated by needs. The CCU, for instance, began offering courses at lower secondary levels and has progressively moved to higher levels"as well as vocationally-oriented courses depending on national needs. The student numbers have also increased quite considerably without any corresponding increase in the number of full-time staff or in capital outlay on buildings and equipment. This points to a third advantage, namely that, in the long term, the distance education system can be cheap and cost-effective. It has been the experience of the CCU that as enrolments increase with more course offerings, the unit cost has progressively been lowered. Thus, distance education systems can exploit economies of scale, can make, full use of existing facilities and services from other institutions, and they can make more efficient use of the time and skills of educators and trainers, who are in short supply. As far as the teachers undergoing training are concerned, they continue to earn their salaries and therefore, far from being a financial burden on 69

71 the country, they contribute to the economy. Finally, teachers following courses of in-service training can put into immediate effect some of the things they learn since their classroom situation provides them with an instant and continuing opportunity for practice. 'Distance education systems, however, are not without shortcomings. The CCU has come to realize that it is more difficult to teach a student at a distance than through face-to-face teaching. The preparation and production of course materials involves much work on the part of the teachers and administrators. The physical isolation of the student may result in his being easily discouraged. He lacks the immediate encouragement and help of a tutor; he lacks the structure which is provided by regular lessons at daily or weekly intervals and which is found in almost every formal learning situation. Library and other study facilities have been inadequate. Drop-out rates may be high. But these shortcomings have been somewhat minimized through a combination of different distance teaching media, and through personal contact between students and their tutors at regular intervals. The teaching of science through distance education methods has probably been the most challenging task which has faced the CCU. Apart from the teaching materials and radio programmes mentioned earlier, the CCU has also developed a simple science experiment kit. This contains basic apparatus, chemicals and carefully arranged instructions which, together with local materials, enable the student to perform some simple experiments in order to clarify certain scientific concepts. The teaching of biological science is even easier and cheaper because many of the specimens needed, such as flowers, leaves, insects and foodstuffs, are within the student's reach. As a kind of feedback, the student is assigned some questions at the end of every other lesson which not only test his understanding of the subject matter but also his proficiency in practical work. Some practical work cannot be done by the student without the use of more sophisticated equipment, such as the culturing of bacteria, which requires a thermostatically controlled oven. Therefore the CCU invites students for short residential courses where they can either carry out intensive practical work on their own or watch tutors demonstrate experiments for them. The CCU hopes to expand into other areas which do not necessarily deal with the teaching of school subjects per se but also try to educate the rural population in such fields as nutrition, child care, agriculture, health and hygiene. The CCU also plans to introduce a mobile science laboratory equipped with chemicals,. apparatus, films, slides, tapes and 70

72 other scientific essentials. These efforts, it is hoped, will bring about the realization that perhaps the best laboratory is our own environment, and not the four-walled room which is far removed from our everyday experience and reality. Other African examples Elsewhere in Africa, there has been a rapid growth during the last decade or so of government-sponsored institutions which are using correspondence and other distance teaching methods in order to meet educational needs. Today, there are well over 40 such institutions within Africa, but only a few examples will be mentioned here. Since 1971, the International Extension College in Cambridge has'been experimenting with distance education methods in a number of African countries, in particular, the combination of correspondence education, broadcasts and face-to-face teaching. It has helped to establish the following three institutions: - Mauritius College of the Air - using correspondence, radio, television and face-to-face teaching for both formal and nonformal education, for school and out-of-school populations; - Botswana Extension College - using the above MCA methods, but without television, for formal and rural education courses; - Lesotho Distance Teaching Centre - using correspondence, radio and face-to-face teaching, for school and adult populations. Other countries of Africa have developed their own institutions geared towards manpower development through the upgrading of basic skills and qualifications, and the provision of school-type courses at various levels and with different clientèles. A few examples are: university degree level courses by the University of Zambia, the University of Lagos, the Centre d'enseignement supérieur at Brazzaville; secondary level courses in Malawi, Uganda, etc.; in-service teacher-training courses in Kenya and (more recently) Nigeria; Gabon and Mali have their Institut pédagogique national; Algeria its Centre national d' : enseignement généralisé; and so on. For rural education and development courses, there are good examples: INADES in the Ivory Coast, now with branches or relay stations in Ethiopia, Burundi, the United Republic of Cameroon, Zaire and Togo; the Cooperative Education Centre in Moshi and the National Correspondence Institute in Dar es-salaam in the United Republic of Tanzania; rural forums in Ghana, radio clubs in Niger, film strips and radio in Rwanda, and so on. One important development has been the formation in 1973 of the African Association for Correspondence Education, comprising 71

73 non-profit-making institutions. Among the Association's chief objectives are the promotion of knowledge about correspondence education in its widest sense, and encouragement of its use and improvement in all forms of education throughout Africa; promoting exchange of information, experience and materials between non-profit correspondence institutions; promoting research into the use and effectiveness of correspondence and other methods of instruction; and promoting the training of personnel engaged in these methods. Full membership includes many institutions from the English-, Frenchand Arabic-speaking countries of Africa, while associate membership is open to institutions elsewhere. Conclusion One feature common to most distance teaching systems is that they cater mainly for adults. These adults are often young, but they will have completed or come out of a formal education system. Distance teaching is also used for professional development, providing people with in-service or on-the-job education and training. This leads towards the idea of permanent education, which recognizes that optimal use can be expected from educational investment in men and money only if the different stages of education are integrated, and by taking education to where the people themselves are - hence the term 'distance education'. This calls for greater use of modern media and technology in order to extend education to more people and to perform tasks where the existing facilities have proved themselves inadequate. After all, we have only managed to educate less than half the world using the traditional methods. Finally, two notes of caution need to be sounded. First, there has been a tendency in the past to go for the more glamorous media at great expense in order to solve educational problems in certain developing countries. Experience has now shown that the choice of the medium is less important than the content and the way it is utilized. Second, the use of distance teaching media will not solve all the educational problems in a country. But, given a chance, it can offer one more tool with which to bring about development. 72

74 IX. Exchanges on basic education in East Africa: a network of sub-regional co-operation Off the coast of Eastern Africa, and in the great inland lakes of Africa, when fishermen venture far from the shore during the night they call to one another over the vast stretches of water. They set up a network of high-pitched cries which link their frail outriggers one with another and with the distant fishing villages from which they set sail. These vocal exchanges create a comforting sense of shared endeavour and communal security in the vast and often dangerous stretches of lonely water. They carry information about the run of the fish, of the catch, of weather, of the sea itself. Those on shore, when they wish, can follow the fishermen's progress and in turn they are comforted by their feeling of involvement. Innovation, research and reform in education are, in some ways, analogous to fishing in deep waters by night. It can be an arduous task; individuals hesitate to launch out alone; sometimes it can be unrewarding; chances of success increase if groups of innovators work over a wide area and exchange information and ex-' periences. The rewards of planning together and of working in a co-operative network for the common good can be considerable. It was with this in mind that educational planners of the Eastern African Region recommend inter alia in August 1974 that: '... small sub-regional "networks" of countries which seem to be planning along similar lines should initiate studies of basic education and planning for its provision. The studies might be conducted through exchanges of correspondence, data, case studies and regular meetings of planners (supported by Unesco/Unicef)', and 1... machinery should be designed to facilitate the exchange of information about innovative experience within the Eastern African Region. One possibility is the compilation of a resource book with Unesco/Unicef assistance. Others are: regular sub-regional conferences perhaps convened by individual countries with Unesco/Unicef support, not only for planners 73

75 and administrators, but for implernentors at various levels; " arrangements for regular exchange of information and experiences about basic education in a news sheet...'., In 1975, several actions were taken towards setting up a regional network of exchanges in direct response to the recommendations above and in the belief that communication is, and always has been, an essential ingredient of human development. Communication should not be thought of only in terms of a beneficial message which is transmitted from a 'superior' source to recipients at a lower level of understanding or competency. Comprehensive communication is an exchange and serves to stimulate and inspire; one-way communication implies superiority/inferiority, can invite resentment - and is often dull. Means of communication are numerous and modern technology enables us to explore new dimensions of communication in a shrinking world. We are now able to' select from a whole range of visual, audible and audio-visual media appropriate instruments, for one-to-one, one-to-many and many-to-one exchanges in support of, or in place of, face-to-face encounters. However, increased dependency on technology brings with it the need for some centralized and institutionalized core of 'hardware' and this aspect of the basic education communications network has not yet been developed. Nevertheless, in September 1975 by approval of the Senate of Kenyatta University College, Keny.a, there came into existence within the Faculty of Education a Basic Education Resource Centre (BERC) which may develop in the first instance into a regional 'clearing-house' for information about basic education and which may offer short in-service courses to educators of the region. The Centre will periodically issue a news magazine which will contain feature articles on basic education and news reports from the various Eastern African countries. The magazine will be distributed widely. The success of BERC and its future development will depend on the response which it elicits from those in Eastern Africa who are concerned to study all aspects of mass basic education. Its suitability as a centre for maintenance and distribution of audiovisual material will be explored. In either or both roles it could be an important 'node' of a regional network. In 1976, Kenyatta University College will offer, as part of the diploma course, an elective course in Basic Education and BERC will arrange an inaugural seminar on young child development which will be wholly African-oriented. 74

76 Also in response to the recommendations of the Basic Education Seminar of August 1974, three countries of the region (Botswana, Swaziland and the United Republic of Tanzania) invited educators to participate in workshops and seminars on topics of common interest. In June 1975 the Government of Botswana invited colleagues from Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Somalia and the United Republic of Tanzania to participate in a seminar on child development and teacher education. Twenty-one working days were spent in the study of theory and practice in Lobatse Government Teacher-Training College. One of the participants, in response to the question posed after the workshop: 'What benefit derives from exchanges of this kind between countries?' wrote the following: 'It was such a useful experience to see other educators from our neighbouring countries who are trying to find answers to the same educational problems that are facing us. Of course, by talking to each other we come closer, learn from each other. In this era of Pan-Africanism, education must be one of the first problems which intercontinental understanding must tackle.' This statement fairly represented the sentiments expressed by all the workshop participants. In June 1975, the Government of Swaziland was host to a group of curriculum development experts from Botswana, Ethiopia, Lesotho and the United Republic of Tanzania who had particular interest in the work of the Swaziland Primary Curriculum Unit, which is preparing a curriculum in terms of 'outcomes'. This seminar was remarkable for the interest it generated regionally in an innovative educational technology; for the outstanding local interest which was aroused; and for the lively participation of senior educationalists from the Minister and Permanent Secretary to the District Officers. The seminar was described by one senior officer as 'one of the more exciting things to happen in the field of education in our part of the world'. In November and December 1975, teacher educators from Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Somalia, Swaziland, Uganda and Zambia assembled in the United Republic of Tanzania to study and discuss unsolved problems in preparing teachers for basic education. They travelled widely in the rural areas, observing and studying features of integrated rural development, decentralization and the integration of education services in rural areas, and finally met in seminar in Dar es-salaam itself, where they were joined by an additional group of Tanzanian educators and observers from many agencies. 75

77 It is important to note that the three conferences described above were convened, prepared and administered by governments. The role of Unesco/Unicef was to participate when invited and provide certain financial support. Participation included on-the-spot contributions in the form of conference papers from Unesco's Deputy Assistant Director-General for Education, Unesco Headquarters and regional staff members, and from the Unicef regional office. Unicef regional and area officers administered travel and other arrangements for the participants. In 1975 also, senior and middle-rank personnel travelled between countries of the region for the purpose of exchanging experiences and views on a wide range of topics allied to basic education. These travel fellowships were funded by Unicef but again local arrangements, invitations, etc., were the responsibility of governments. Senior officers from Swaziland visited Somalia and the United Republic of Tanzania to study the introduction of national languages as the medium of instruction. The visits furthered the belief expressed at the Basic Education Seminar in Nairobi:'... the consensus opinion is that, where it is at all possible, the language of basic education should be the national language'. Others visited Zambia, Kenya and the United Republic of Tanzania for the purpose of studying planning and administration for curriculum development centres and techniques of curriculum definition. Swaziland and the United Republic of Tanzania offered opportunities to a senior Ethiopian teacher educator to visit their countries to observe and discuss basic education, community education centres and reformed teacher education. Zambia and Swaziland offered their facilities and experiences in planning and evaluating new curricula for basic education and teacher education to a senior Tanzanian officer. In turn, the United Republic of Tanzania accommodated four educators from Mozambique, enabling them to study basic education in their country. All of the above has served to focus attention on basic education as the top priority for the coming decade and has created at least spiritual and intellectual linkages between individuals whose concern is basic education. The exchanges have revealed also that within the region there are now nationals who are held in the highest esteem by colleagues in neighbouring countries. There is also a growing 'pool' of expertise in the various areas of basic education. From the ranks of these individuals are emerging the 'experts' and 'specialists' who will act as consultants and advisers within the region. 76