Discovering Connections between Creativity and. Time Management in Twenty-First Century Teaching. Rebecca L. Lorfink. A dissertation submitted

Transcription

1 Discovering Connections between Creativity and Time Management in Twenty-First Century Teaching by Rebecca L. Lorfink A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education Field of Educational Management and Leadership at the Drexel University August 2012

2 Copyright 2012 Rebecca L. Lorfink. All Rights Reserved.

3 Creativity, Teaching, and Time ii Dedications I dedicate this to my family who supported and cheered me throughout this process.

4 Creativity, Teaching, and Time iii Acknowledgements The last three years have been a demanding endeavor in which I have learned the limits I can push myself. I certainly could not have accomplished this task without the support of many fine individuals. I offer my sincere appreciation to: Dr. John Gould, my chair and advisor, for allowing me the space to think and write, following my own path, while providing enough push to challenge my ideas. I have learned to embrace ambiguity and rise to the occasion without the familiar structure of traditional education. Dr. Michel Miller, for her critical eye, constructive criticism, and statistical knowledge. Dr. Teresa Eagle, for joining us in this journey from afar. It was a pleasure to work with you again. The members of Cohort One in Harrisburg, PA, for emotional support, encouragement, and advice over the past three years. Most of us had never met when this journey began, but we quickly merged into a strong unit that surpassed any obstacle thrown in front of us. Let the end of this trip not be the end of our new family. The Administrative team and faculty at my home school district for their support, encouragement, and participation. The daily reminders of what I can accomplish pushed me along the way. My family, near and far, for checking in, pushing me along the path, and keeping me sane. I certainly could not have accomplished this feat without my husband and children by my side.

5 Creativity, Teaching, and Time iv Table of Contents Chapter One: Introduction... 1 Introduction... 1 Problem Statement... 3 Purpose and Significance of the Problem... 3 Research Questions Focused on Solution Finding... 4 Conceptual Framework... 4 Definition of Terms Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations Summary Chapter Two: Literature Review Introduction of the Problem Conceptual Framework Literature Review Chapter Three: Research Methodology Introduction Site and Population Research Design and Rationale Research Methods Ethical Considerations Chapter Four: Findings and Results Introduction Participant Demographics Quantitative Results Qualitative Findings Summary Chapter 5: Interpretations, Conclusion, Implications, and Recommendations Introduction Interpretation of Findings and Results

6 Creativity, Teaching, and Time v Conclusion Recommended Actionable Solutions Summary References Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C Appendix D Appendix E Appendix F Appendix G Appendix H Appendix I Appendix J Vita

7 Creativity, Teaching, and Time vi List of Tables Table 1 Survey Tools Table 2 Survey Schedule Table 3 ATTA Results Table 4 Personal Creativity by Subject Table 5 Fostering Creativity by Subject Table 6 Time Management by Subject Table 7 Correlational analysis Table 8 Time Management vs. Personal Creativity subscales Table 9 Time Management vs. Fostering Creativity subscales Table 10 Personal Creativity vs. Fostering Creativity subscales... 92

8 Creativity, Teaching, and Time vii List of Figures Figure 1 Visual Representation of Conceptual Framework... 9 Figure 2 Literature Map Figure 3 Research Timeline Figure 4 Time Management vs. Personal Creativity Figure 5 Time Management vs. Fostering Creativity Figure 6 Personal Creativity vs. Fostering Creativity Figure 7 Visualization of Theory

9 Creativity, Teaching, and Time viii Abstract Discovering Connections between Creativity and Time Management in Twenty-First Century Teaching Rebecca L. Lorfink John Gould, Ph.D. The purpose of this study was to determine links between creativity and time management in secondary education within a standards-based environment. Connections between time management skills, personal creativity, and the likelihood to foster creativity in students can assist in the search for actionable solutions to perceived obstacles within the area of creativity. Creativity is essential for the future of the United States due to the changing nature of a global society (Zhao, 2009). Students must be explicitly taught creative problem-solving skills to be prepared for this future (Wince-Smith, 2006). Nonetheless, teachers face pressures to focus on standardized assessments in an era of accountability brought on by the No Child Left Behind Act (Schoen & Fusarelli, 2008). These conflicting desires, combined with increasing time pressures (Collinson, 2001), have decreased creativity in secondary classrooms (Amabile et al., 2002). This study was based on the work of Zampetakis, Bouranta, and Moustakis (2010) who discovered a positive relationship between time management and creativity. The study used a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative data and qualitative data for depth of understanding. Quantitative research was correlational in nature and identified positive relationships between time management, personal creativity, and the likelihood to foster creativity in the classroom. There was no significant evidence of a link between a teacher s creativity and their inclination to encourage creativity.

10 Creativity, Teaching, and Time ix A grounded-theory approach was used to develop a theory of successful creativity in teaching within a high-stakes climate. Successful time managers used tools, set goals and priorities, collaborated with peers, and consistently acted as professionals in the workplace. Highly creative teachers provided opportunities for students to connect learning to personal interests and experiences while offering choices in the classroom. Teacher perspectives on creativity and certain student factors were identified as critical by highly creative teachers. A supportive administration can embolden creativity and time management by providing appropriate resources, supporting a creative climate, giving time for collaboration and reflection, and stating specific goals and expectations to their staff. Recommendations were provided to educational leaders to provide specific staff development and other support in the areas of time management and creativity. Keywords: creativity, time management, fostering creativity, climate of accountability, secondary education, United States

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12 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 1 Chapter One: Introduction Introduction In the Twentieth century, Americans felt great pride in being at, or at least near, the apex of the world in most every category. Certainly, in the areas of education, technology, science, standard of living, military strength, and political positioning, it was difficult to name an apparent close contender. However, the world is shifting drastically and other countries, many that were previously held in contempt or thought of as backwards by citizens of the United States, are now either competitive or ahead of the typical American expectation (Rosling, 2011). These changes are the result of new and ever-increasing technologies paired with global political and economic transformations. Today s world is one in which geographical boundaries have less importance and automation is making many traditional careers obsolete. Nonetheless, the public education system within the United States has not moved toward sustainable change that will allow the citizens of an unknown future to prosper in this global setting. Other countries around the world have recognized the need for creativity and its importance for economic growth. Curriculum changes are being made globally to infuse technology, move away from standardized testing, increase local control, and explicitly teach creative problem-solving skills (Zhao, 2009). The United States, however, has moved toward increased federal control and accountability, most notably since the inception of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) in Curriculum has become more scripted and narrowed in this new age of American education, and the academic progress of the country is at risk.

13 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 2 Classroom teachers in the United States, working within the current environment of standardized testing and increasing accountability pressures, have altered classroom practices to meet these types of assessments. Students practice multiple-choice questions and open-ended written responses, while learning to use specific rubrics to get the highest potential score. Teacher evaluations and pay scales are beginning to be based partly on student achievement demonstrated by the results of these tests, and the pressure to perform has led to allegations of cheating (Hanushek & Rivkin, 2010). Creative lessons and assessments take time to develop and plan. However, in secondary classrooms, teacher time is a luxury. Recent research has shown a positive correlation between effective time management and the level of success in creative work (Zampetakis, Bouranta, & Moustakis, 2010). In that study, time management referred to the planning behaviors that facilitate productivity and limit stress, including prioritization of tasks and management of possible distractions. Time pressures experienced by individuals negatively correlated with production in creative problem solving. However, those individuals who had the ability to self-regulate time and were learning-oriented applied effective strategies for creative problem solving and in creative tasks (Zampetakis et al., 2010). The status quo is no longer acceptable, and there is much research available offering practical, systematic methods to help educators move in a new direction toward innovative solutions. However, teachers need perceived control over time and need to be skilled managers of this precious resource to effectively implement these problemsolving processes. Autonomy over time combined with knowledge of creative problem

14 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 3 solving skills can allow teachers to move others toward the creation of unique solutions to the most discouraging problems facing schools today. Problem Statement The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between creativity in secondary education and time management within the current standards-based environment. Purpose and Significance of the Problem It is imperative that American students are explicitly taught creativity skills, while being allowed to pursue individual interests (Gaspersz, 2007; Wince-Smith, 2006). Simultaneously, teachers must balance the demands of standardization, increasing accountability, and limited time, with the need for creativity and improved thinking skills. Does a relationship exist between these two variables? If so, explicit instruction from educational leaders in time management and the importance of creative thinking skills and creativity may lead to improved education for American secondary students. This research will be valuable to school administrators and teachers who are looking for an actionable solution to the problems of time and creativity. The researcher is an educational leader searching for methods to improve creativity in education while improving matters of a practical nature. There is little research involving applied answers for maximizing time in education, specifically at the secondary level. The standardsbased movement in the United States needs to embrace the essential skills of creativity and innovation. This research investigated possible methods linked to time management that assist in successfully teaching 21 st Century skills within the confines of required academic standards without sacrificing teacher creativity.

15 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 4 Research Questions Focused on Solution Finding In investigating teachers creativity and time management skills, the researcher primarily answered, How are creativity and time management related in secondary education within a standards-based environment? Several sub-questions guided the research at both the quantitative and qualitative stages: What level of correlation exists between secondary teachers - time management skills and personal creativity? - time management skills and likelihood to foster student creativity? - personal creativity and likelihood to foster student creativity? How are some teachers highly creative while demonstrating effective time management, within a standards-based environment? Conceptual Framework Researcher s stances. In 1789, Thomas Jefferson said, Whenever the people are well-informed, they can be trusted with their own government" (The Jefferson Monticello). Education in the United States was designed to provide all children with basic literacy needed to participate in a democratic society as productive, informed citizens. For over a century, students sat in neat rows and learned from teachers who were considered experts in their subjects. However, the world and society are now experiencing drastic changes that are altering the way we think, behave, work, and interact. In fact, the very definition of well-informed must be altered to meet the needs of this changing society. Schools need to move toward systemic change that will meet these new challenges and tools of the 21 st Century.

16 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 5 Great challenges lie ahead for American schools in the areas of curriculum and effective instruction. To remain a competitive nation in the world, the United States must move away from the current path of high-stakes testing and federal control and toward a system where creativity, innovation, and global understanding are basic skills. The rapid pace of change calls for flexibility in education as the current system becomes more rigid. Historically, the United States valued individualism, creativity, and problem solving, partnered with a focus on technology and the future. A return to these values can bring the United States back into stride with other nations around the world to work together for a stronger humanity. New technologies have changed the way human beings work, interact socially, are entertained, and locate information. Computer technology and the Internet have forever altered our lives in countless ways. Global positioning systems have virtually eliminated the need for maps. Books can be delivered instantaneously on electronic readers, and electronic mail ( ) has significantly decreased the need for the postal service. Facebook now has over 900 million users with over half of whom check their pages daily (Facebook Press Room), and anyone with Internet access and a bit of knowhow can become a published author, creator, photographer, or videographer. At the same time, the growing availability of mobile devices and wireless access are making access to technology possible for people worldwide without former expenses and geographic limitations. Virtual environments such as Second Life are further breaking down the physical barriers that humans experience in the physical world (Zhao, 2009). This growth of technology is exponential in nature and will continue to rise at a pace that is difficult for most individuals to fathom (Kurzweil, 2005). In addition, the

17 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 6 actual amount of knowledge is increasing at a rapid pace, as technical knowledge had doubled every 72 hours in 2010 (Darling-Hammond, 2010). The availability of technology has altered the nature of employment in the present and for the future. Numerous manufacturing jobs have moved abroad where employment is found at a drastically reduced cost as technology eases access to people, images, and data. Companies in the United States employ people in India, Russia, Egypt, and virtually all over the world where workers are willing to be paid substantially less than Americans and can be reached through affordable technology (Pink, 2005). Increased automation through technology has allowed many jobs to be completed with software or machinery, rendering their human counterparts less useful. The jobs of the future will be those that require creativity and critical thinking skills, paired with the ability to work with others collaboratively and the capacity of innovation (Pink, 2005). Most adults received their basic knowledge, skills, and understandings of the world by listening to lectures, reading books, and completing rote assignments in traditional classroom environments. Most secondary students still experience education through a teacher-centered model in which the child is expected to learn by accomplishing what the instructor demands. NCLB led to a significant increase in standardized testing, especially in mathematics, reading, and writing, and has changed the focus of curriculum in schools across America. High stakes of such accountability has limited what is taught and learned. [and] constrain how teaching and learning are conducted (Zhao, 2009). Many schools have decreased the time and resources spent on the arts, social studies, and even science to focus on the subjects evaluated by these assessments. Ironically, students have essentially lost the freedom to study areas of

18 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 7 interest within the school environment at the same time that access to information has increased. The Partnership for 21 st Century Skills, founded in 2002, is a national organization that advocates for 21 st Century readiness for every student and is comprised of several businesses, government organizations, and individuals (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009). This union is focused on building 21 st Century skills in core academic subjects partnered with skill outcomes in critical thinking, problem solving, communication, and innovation. Students would also be economically and technically literate, adaptable to change, and globally capable (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009). In addition, the Partnership recognizes the need for accountability without the stringent use of the multiple-choice, single point assessments such as those that are currently in place. Rotherham and Willingham (2009) argued that these skills are not unique or new to our current society. The issue at hand is the inconsistency in the American education system and the lack of access to quality schools that many students encounter every day. The authors insisted that skills and knowledge must be taught, and that education cannot rely on technology for simple factual knowledge. These facts must be partnered with skills, such as critical thinking, that must be taught explicitly and in connection to core knowledge. There is concern that abstract and challenging concepts are being introduced too early, before most children can truly understand and grasp the ideas (Willingham, 2009). Teachers need greater time for collaboration and training in how to teach students to collaborate and innovate. Quality assessments that test thinking skills partnered with content need to be created, but the high-cost of developing and implementing these tests

19 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 8 is somewhat prohibitive (Willingham, 2009). There is a valid concern that 21 st Century skills and true curricular change in this area will simply be another failed initiative, which will only lead to our schools and our students falling further behind. While fifteen states are part of the Partnership for 21 st Century Skills, forty-five have adopted standards based on the common core in Language Arts and Mathematics (NGAC, 2009). These standards are written to provide rigor, specificity, and consistency to the content being taught and will bring the United States closer to a national curriculum. However, there has been no mention of creativity and critical thinking, global perspectives, economics, civics, or science. While this movement makes it simpler to compare states to one another and will likely lead to national assessments, there is no evidence that these standards will move the United States to a position that is globally competitive in crucial areas. The Common Core could lead to further teaching to the test and increase pressure to score well only for accountability purposes, not for the benefit of individual students. In order for systemic change to occur in this era of uncertainty, there will need to be a clear, positive vision for the future of American education. This will require a shift in thinking that is spurred by passionate individuals who see the value in fighting for these changes (Senge, Smith, Kruschwitz, Laur, & Schley, 2008). However, today s teachers in Central Pennsylvania, as in most of the United States, are experiencing extreme budget cuts, which have led to fewer teachers and decreasing resources. Educators at all levels are experiencing personal stress and increasing demands. The focus on the Pennsylvania Academic Standards and the Common Core Standards leads secondary teachers away from the creativity that is vital at this level.

20 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 9 Conceptual framework of three research streams. The study was designed to investigate the relationship between time management and creativity within the standards-based environment of secondary education. Three themes appeared in the development of the study: creativity in education, time management, and the impact of NCLB on teaching and school accountability. A visual representation of this framework is shown in Figure 1. Creativity in teaching and time management are both elements of secondary education in the United States. These variables coexist in a conflicting climate between the need for creativity for global competitiveness and the climate of accountability leading away from creativity and innovation. Creativity in Teaching Personal Creativity Fostering Student Creativity Time Management Personal skills Autonomy in position Secondary Education for the 21st Century Global competition Need for innovation Impact of technology Climate of Accountability NCLB Emphasis on basic skills Figure 1: Visual representation of conceptual framework

21 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 10 As creativity and innovation are critical to the success of the American economy within a global climate, society must begin to look at creativity differently (DeBono, 1994). Higher-order thinking skills, such creative problem solving, must be taught to students who will be the workers of the next generation. A highly creative labor pool will allow the United States to continue a competitive edge globally. As the future employees of the nation, today s students must be taught to be creative for the future. The classroom environment was a critical factor for education in creativity among reviewed literature (Beghetto, 2006; Fleith, 2001; Diakidoy and Kanari, 1999). Educational choice in the classroom can increase student creativity (Flowerday, 2000). Other teacher characteristics, such as orientation toward learning, personal motivation for creative work, and beliefs about the nature of knowledge and learning, have an effect on teachers abilities to foster creativity (Hong, Hartzell, & Greene, 2009). Creativity takes time to develop and plan. However, in education, time is not a common luxury for teachers. Nonetheless, there is evidence that a person s perception of their individual control of time is positively correlated to their success in creative tasks (Zampetakis, et al., 2010). Additional work suggests correlation between planning behavior and perceptions over control of time, leading to job satisfaction, productivity, and improved health (Claessens, et al., 2004). This was found to be especially true in positions in which there was high autonomy paired with a high workload. Time pressures influence teachers in today s schools, possibly leading to poor management skills. Teachers feel overwhelmed with paperwork, new initiatives, and outside obligations leading to negativity (Collinson, 2001). At the same time, creativity needs time for trial and error and personal reflection, both of which are difficult in an

22 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 11 environment under high time stress (Amabile, 2002). This same research resolved that emotional exhaustion and poor time management, were highly correlated with teacher burnout. This need for creativity, partnered with high time pressures, occurs during an era of increased accountability in the United States. The release of the A Nation at Risk report in 1983 signaled the beginning as citizens and legislators demanded an increase in the quality of schools and more globally competitive graduates. This movement culminated in 2001 with the passage of NCLB, which moved beyond universal access toward a system of universal proficiency, with a mandated target of 100% of students reaching stated goals by The question remains if test scores and international competitiveness are actually linked. Although Bracey found a slight positive correlation between these variables, the test scores comprised less than 5% of a nation s competiveness (Bracey, 2002). These high stakes tests discourage creative thinking, while leading students to believe there is only one correct answer to a problem. In addition, schools in such an environment function in an atmosphere of fear and stress (Schoen & Fusarelli, 2008). Educational leaders and instructors feel the conflicting pull between the high accountability of NCLB, based on traditional 20th Century knowledge, and the importance of new skills for today s world (Schoen & Fusarelli, 2008). A balance between individuality and creativity partnered with a solid foundation in critical knowledge and skills must be found for the future of American education and success. Teacher management of time may be a critical factor in the puzzle of this balancing act.

23 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 12 Definition of Terms Within the context of this study, certain terminology will commonly be used. It is necessary to define these terms in order to maintain a common frame of reference, as these ideas are intertwined throughout the study related to the principal concepts and literature. Creativity: Skills and attitudes needed in generating ideas and products that are relatively novel, high in quality, and appropriate to the task at hand (Amabile in Sternberg, 2005). Fostering Creativity: Actions teachers take that improve creativity skills in students. These actions may or may not be intentionally designed for this purpose (Hong, Hartzell, & Greene, 2009). Time Management Skills: Planning behaviors that facilitate productivity and can limit stress, including prioritization of tasks and management of possible distractions (Zampetakis, et al., 2010). Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations This study was completed over a relatively short period of time and focused on a single school district in central Pennsylvania. The actual time schedules of the teachers were not flexible, thus the researcher focused on measuring time management skills and the perception of time. The researcher is an administrator in the district and an evaluator of some of the participants. This could be perceived as a limitation for the research. Confidentiality of the data was ensured to help overcome this limitation. As an action research study, the researcher was studying a problem within the context of the district

24 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 13 and current climate in the area. This may make the results difficult to transfer to schools with different climates and demographics. Summary Today s students need experiences in creative thinking skills and innovation to be successful in the current global culture. Standards based curriculums and increased accountability through standardized assessments will not be enough to create a competitive citizenry for the future. At the same time, teachers have experienced increasing time pressures and demands, while individuality and innovation take a proverbial backseat in education. By examining the relationship between time management and creativity, the researcher has identified possible obstacles, which can then be overcome through creative leadership, leading to the development of teachers who can meet the demands of accountability, while incorporating skills for the 21 st Century.

25 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 14 Chapter Two: Literature Review Introduction of the Problem The United States was the pinnacle of economic success and citizen health during the twentieth century. However, the global picture looks differently at the start of the twenty-first century, as countries around the world are now either becoming competitive or moving ahead of American expectations due to new technologies paired with global political and economic transformations (Rosling, 2011). Nonetheless, the public education system within the United States has not moved toward sustainable change that will allow the citizens of the near future to prosper in this global setting (Zhao, 2009). Other countries around the world have recognized the need for creativity and its importance for economic growth (Darling-Hammond, 2010; Zhao, 2009). Curriculum changes across the world have infused technology, moved away from standardized testing, increased local control, and explicitly taught creative problem-solving skills (Zhao, 2009). The United States, however, has moved toward increased federal control and accountability, most notably since the inception of NCLB. Classroom teachers in the United States have altered instructional practices to meet measures of accountability (Schoen & Fusarelli, 2008; Shapiro & Thompson, 2008). Students practice multiple choice questions and open-ended written responses, while learning how specific rubrics are used to score the responses. Teacher evaluations and pay scales are beginning to be based partly on student achievement, and the pressure to perform has led to allegations of cheating in recent news. Creative lessons and assessments take time to develop and plan. However, in secondary classrooms, time is not a common luxury. Recent research has shown a direct

26 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 15 correlation between effective time management and the level of success in creative work (Zampetakis et al., 2010). In this study, time management referred to the planning behaviors that facilitated productivity and limited stress, including prioritization of tasks and management of distractions. Time pressures experienced by individuals negatively correlated with production in creative problem solving. However, those individuals who had the ability to self-regulate time and were learning-oriented applied effective strategies for creative problem solving (Zampetakis et al., 2010). The status quo is not acceptable for the continued success of the United States. In education, teachers need to have perceived control over time and become skilled managers of this precious resource to implement creative problem solving processes effectively in the classroom environment. Autonomy over time combined with knowledge of methods to foster creative problem solving skills may allow teachers to move others toward the creation of unique solutions to the most discouraging problems facing schools today. Conceptual Framework Public education in the United States was initially designed to provide all children with a basic literacy needed to participate in a democratic society as productive, informed citizens (Hufstedler, 2002). For over a century, students sat in neat rows and learned from teachers who were considered experts in their content. However, the world and society are now experiencing drastic changes that are changing the way we think, behave, work, and interact. In fact, the very definition of well-informed needs to be altered to meet the needs of this changing society.

27 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 16 To remain a competitive nation in the world, the United States must move away from the current path of high-stakes testing and federal control toward a system where creativity, innovation, and global understanding are key (Peters, 2009). Technology must not be thought of as simply another tool, but as the way of life today and in the future. New technologies, including the Internet, mobile devices, electronic readers, and global positioning systems (GPS) have changed the way human beings work, interact socially, are entertained, and locate information. The growth of technology is exponential in nature and will continue to rise at a pace that is difficult for most individuals to fathom (Kurzweil, 2005). In addition, the actual amount of knowledge is also increasing at an exponential pace (Darling-Hammond, 2010). This availability of technology has altered the nature of employment in the present and for the future. Manufacturing jobs have moved overseas where workers are willing to be paid substantially less than Americans and can now be reached through affordable technology (Pink, 2005). Increased automation through technology allows task completion with software or machinery, rendering their human counterparts less useful. The jobs of the future will be those that require creativity and critical thinking skills, paired with the ability to work with others collaboratively and the capacity of innovation (Pink, 2005). However, traditional secondary schools still provide education through a teachercentered, traditional model. The NCLB, led to a significant increase in standardized testing, especially in mathematics, reading, and writing, and changed the focus of curriculum in schools across America. High stakes of such accountability has limited

28 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 17 what is taught and learned. [and] constrain how teaching and learning are conducted (Zhao, 2009). Quality assessments that test thinking skills, partnered with content, need to be created. However, the high-cost of developing and implementing these tests is somewhat prohibitive (Willingham, 2009). Forty-four states have adopted standards based on the Common Core in Language Arts and Mathematics (NGAC, 2009). These standards were written to provide rigor, specificity, and consistency to the content being taught and will bring the United States closer to a national curriculum. Oddly, there is no mention of creativity and critical thinking or global perspectives, economics, civics, or science (NGAC, 2009). While this movement makes it simpler to compare states to one another and will likely lead to national assessments, there has been no evidence that these standards will move the United States to a position that is globally competitive in crucial areas. The Partnership for 21 st Century Skills, founded in 2002, is a national organization that advocates for 21 st Century readiness for every student (2009) focused on building skills in core academic subjects partnered with critical thinking, problem solving, communication, and innovation. Students would also be economically and technically literate, adaptable to change, and globally capable (2009). In addition, the Partnership recognizes the need for accountability without the stringent use of the multiple-choice, single point assessments. However, significantly fewer states (15) have been involved in this initiative. In order for systemic change to occur in this era of global shifts, there will need to be an alteration in thinking that is stimulated by individuals who see the value in fighting

29 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 18 for these changes (Senge, Smith, Kruschwitz, Laur, & Schley, 2008). However, today s teachers in Central Pennsylvania, and across the county, are experiencing declining budgets, which have led to fewer teachers, increased stressors, and decreasing resources. The focus on the Pennsylvania Academic Standards and the Common Core Standards leads secondary teachers away from the creativity that is vital for the future. Literature Review This study was designed to investigate the relationship between time management and creativity within the standards-based environment of secondary education. Prior to data collection and analysis, a review of relevant literature was essential to build a proper foundation. The review focused on three themes: creativity, time management, and the impact of NCLB on teaching. The research into creativity in education was viewed through two lenses: personal creativity within the individual teacher, and the teacher s capability to foster creativity in students. Personal creativity is critical to solve complex problems in the changing environment of education. At the same time, American teachers must improve the creative abilities and innovative potential in today s students and tomorrow s citizens. Time management skills are needed to balance the demands of today s creative work and accountability burdens for teachers. These variables co-exist in the current climate of accountability, which is crucial to the understanding of these variables and how teachers can be successful in the realm of creativity.

30 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 19 Literature Map General characteristics Creativity Creativity in Education Creative Leadership Connections between creativity and time management Time Management In the workplace Connections to creativity Current Climate of Accountability Impact of NCLB Impact of creative leadership Figure 2: Literature map

31 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 20 Creativity. General Characteristics. Hennessey and Amabile (2010) reviewed creativity literature and discovered a wealth of research in multiple areas, viewing research in creativity as a necessity for the future of society. They noted the growth in journals dedicated to such research from only The Journal of Creative Behavior to several others including the Journal of Thinking Skills and Creativity and the Creativity Research Journal (Hennessey & Amabile, 2010). The death of Paul Torrance in 2003 encouraged new research in this topic, along with the development of new areas to explore creativity. The availability of technology, most notably functional magnetic resonance imagery (fmri), has allowed groundbreaking neuroscience to uncover information about the neurological basis of creative behavior, (Hennessey & Amabile, 2010, p. 574) finding links in the cerebellum and the right hemisphere of the brain. A positive affect was clearly linked with a person s level of creativity, connecting to intrinsic motivation, flexible thinking, and problem solving (Isen & Reeve in Hennessey & Amabile, 2010.) However, conflicting evidence demonstrated similar results for negative affect, through high stress and time pressures in the workplace. Hennessey and Amabile (2010) noted: Positive mood leads to expansive, playful, divergent thinking and the generation of new ideas. Negative mood signals that something is problematic and pushes employees to try hard to improve matters through creative ideas careful, systematic information processing. The result of both processes is good, well thought out ideas that are really creative. (p. 575)

32 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 21 The link between intelligence and creativity was studied recently, looking at intelligence as a possible predictive value for creativity (Batey, Chamorro-Premuzic, & Furnham, 2010). The authors showed that five personality traits (neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness), and intelligence were systematically related to creativity (p. 93). Reviewed personality traits included cognitive ability, personality factors, cognitive style, motivation, knowledge, and the environment. Creative ideation, which is viewed as a common component of creativity, was used as the primary definition in this research and was found to have a negative correlation with intelligence. Edward De Bono has written extensively on creativity from a practical perspective, referring to creativity as a characteristic that reaches far beyond the arts. He wrote that the thought of creativity as rebelliousness was not only wrong, but dangerous (De Bono, 1994). His logical view of creativity can be taught so the majority of individuals can be successful in creative problem solving. Today s economy is based on people and things rather than land, capital, and labor and is becoming more commonly referred to as the creative economy, a change from the knowledge economy of the 1990s (Peters, 2009). Peters reviewed several economic periods and the forces that lead to changes in business. Creativity is often seen as individualistic and difficult to manage. In schools and businesses alike, the top-down structures of the last century must be re-evaluated and adjusted to allow creative thought and products (Peters, 2009). Peters defined characteristics of educational capitalism, which rely on technology, global communication, and open access. Online education,

33 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 22 corporate virtual development, access to online publishing, and open-source software are all elements of this new educational capitalism (Peters, 2009). Open communication and a shared vision are seen as crucial for creative success in business. Bill Gates is quoted as stating that, Human imagination is our only real asset here at Microsoft (Gaspersz, 2007). These companies operate in spaces designed for informal meetings and impromptu gatherings where employees spontaneously discuss new ideas and projects. In many of these organizations, employees are expected to use a certain percentage of their time on experimental projects of their own choosing. Many Japanese companies use the Kaizen principle, in which one idea from every 100 employees is better than 100 ideas from one manager (Gaspersz, 2007). DuPont approximates that they need 3,000 ideas to launch one new product successfully. This type of climate should certainly apply to education, as well. Creativity skills, such as high-level problem solving must be taught to students who will be the workers of the next generation. A highly creative labor pool will allow the United States to remain competitive on the global stage. Additionally, effective teachers need a climate that encourages creative thinking skills. However, in today s high-stakes testing environment, there is little room for failure. Most teachers lack time to think creatively and are often provided little time for collaboration. Vladislav Inozemtev, a Russian economist, took a different look at creativity in his 1999 article. He spent a great deal of time looking at the difference between work and labor. Essentially, according to Inozemtev, labor refers to tasks that one does not enjoy, but must complete, while work is used to describe tasks that are enjoyed (Inozemtsev, 1999). Work must involve a level of creativity, as this is a self-motivated

34 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 23 activity that the individual will undertake even if there is no economic benefit. Here again is an author who speaks of the end of the industrial era and the evolution of society s current economic structure. Inozemtev felt that society is moving toward a post-materialist system, in which service and creativity, along with interpersonal relationships will define the world of work. This will occur as the majority of society reaches a significant level of material goods and feels a desire for something more (Inozemtsev, 1999). Another characteristic of this age will be an educational boom (Inozemtsev, 1999). Today, more students than ever are moving on to post-secondary education and post-graduate studies. Creativity in Education. Jeffrey and Craft (2004) defined the distinction between teaching creatively and teaching for creativity as defined in the National Advisory Committee on Creative and Cultural Education (NACCCE) report. The research demonstrated that the concepts are interrelated as teaching creatively often leads to teaching for creativity as educators model related processes for the students. These processes included providing relevant experiences and using a hands-on approach, which engages the learner, while allowing the student a degree of control over their own learning and content. In the classroom, the environment, including the individual teacher, surrounding students was found to have an impact on divergent thinking skills. Creativity was also found to have a direct impact on teacher effectiveness (Runco, 2004). Piggott (2007) examined creativity specifically in the teaching of mathematics. Creativity was found to be inherent in the construction of problem solving for a solid understanding of mathematics. However, teachers are concerned with curriculum coverage of content, often stressed in national or state standards and assessments

35 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 24 (Piggott, 2007). This leads to a lack of time spent in the classroom on the development of problem solving skills in mathematics. Teachers must not be afraid of experimentation and need to be willing and encouraged to try out new ideas (Piggott, 2007). While this author s views apply to mathematics education specifically, the ideas presented can easily be transferred to other curriculum areas as well. Mark Runco, member of the Psychology Department at California State University, Fullerton, compiled the latest in creativity research throughout various disciplines (Runco, 2004). Several areas of this research applied to the topics of creativity, economics, and education. Runco reviewed research indicating a fourth-grade slump in American schools in the area of creativity. This slump occurred in nearly 50% of the population studied (Runco, 2004) and coincides with the beginning of mandated standardized testing in most states. In economics, Runco found a link between socioeconomic status and creative thinking, especially during the developmental years of childhood. Those in higher economic situations were found to exhibit traits that are more creative. Nonetheless, there is a theory that low socioeconomic status can force individuals to be creative, although this theory had not been tested at the time of the article (Runco, 2004). Shahid Yusef, of the World Bank in Washington D.C., weighed in on the creativity debate in His research looked at creativity as the application of knowledge toward innovative product development. For a society to be innovative, Yusef looked to individual characteristics that can lead to creative people. Specifically, he feels that children need stable, nurturing families with an education that stresses analysis and deep knowledge. Children must also learn to work in collaborative groups

36 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 25 and use technology to solve problems. Most important is access to high quality teachers and classroom instruction that is reinforced at home (Yusef, 2007). Citizens must also have access to quality healthcare and have a relative satisfaction in life. Interestingly, on a list of globally competitive countries, the United States ranked in the top twelve, but was not on a comparative list of those satisfied with life (Yusef, 2007). Public education in the United States must change to meet the needs of the twenty-first century learner and employee. Specifically, liberal education must focus on teaching creativity to students as a primary aspiration (Wince-Smith, 2006). Other countries have begun to focus on innovation as the key in education. Fatt wrote extensively about creativity in education, specifically in Singapore (Fatt, 2000). The connection between economic growth and changes in educational policy is strong and recognized in developing nations. Fatt established guidelines for educators to foster creativity in their own schools. Principals must provide regular feedback, encourage brainstorming, and market new ideas (Fatt, 2000). The classroom environment, where students have access to invigorating instruction and research, enjoy healthy competition, and attend discovery trips is critical to student creativity. New courses in ethics, critical and intuitive thinking, customer service, humor, the arts, and cultural awareness will also increase creative thought in graduates (Fatt, 2000). Fatt also takes several positions that are controversial in the United States. Open book testing that assesses understanding, not memorization and encouraging risk-taking in students would not be welcome changes in many of America s public schools, but regularly occur in Singapore. He speaks of using karaoke to help teach reading (2000). Other enjoyable tasks such as including adventure stories that are relevant to today s

37 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 26 youth, providing relevance in writing tasks, and using educational software in the classroom would be more welcome under current philosophy. If countries such as Singapore are willing to take risks and make fundamental changes in the education structures that currently exist, the United States may find the economic position that is currently held slip even further in scales of global competitiveness. In 2006, Beghetto investigated the correlation between creative self-efficacy and classroom environment, including teacher encouragement and feedback, at the University of Oregon. Conclusions showed that secondary students with stronger beliefs regarding academics also have increased self-efficacy in the area of creativity (Beghetto, 2006). Also, a student who feels encouraged by his teacher to be creative was more likely to perform in this manner. Behetto s work supports that of Geist and Hohn (2009) in authentic encouragement. Creativity is fostered when the arts are integrated into the curriculum, when training for pre-service teachers includes training in the arts, and when teachers provide authentic encouragement rather than empty praise when developing children s creative potential (2009). Classroom environment was found to be a critical factor in fostering creativity in students. Both teachers and students alike believe that the classroom environment enhances creativity when students are given choices, different perspectives are welcome, self-confidence is encouraged, and students unique strengths and interests are reinforced (Fleith, 2000). Diakidoy and Kanari (1999) found similar results in the importance of classroom environment while examining the opinions of student teachers about creativity, creative outcomes, and factors related to creativity. Creativity was viewed as manifested through artistic and literary activity and seen as a skill that can be taught to students.

38 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 27 Creativity was also viewed as an inherent characteristic similar to, although not succinctly connected to, intelligence. These studies support the findings of the National Association of Community College Entrepreneurship (NACCE) report All our Futures (1999), which recommended that in order to develop creative ability, teachers must encourage students individual beliefs in their creativity, while encouraging the confidence to take risks. Educational choice in the classroom, specifically how teachers determine when and to whom to provide choices, as well as why they give certain choices, can increase student creativity (Flowerday, 2000). Teachers perceive that providing choices to students in the classroom increases student creativity, although primary reasons for innovation were in the areas of student motivation, engagement, and interest. Additionally, teachers epistemological view, motivation, and goal orientation related to instructional practices can foster student creativity (Hong, Hartzell, & Greene, 2009). Certain characteristics have an effect on teachers abilities to foster creativity. These characteristics are the teacher s orientation toward learning, personal motivation for creative work, and the teacher s beliefs about the nature of knowledge and learning. Award winning creative teachers were found to possess specific personality characteristics, family background and experiences, dedication to the profession, and personal motivation (Horng, Hong, ChanLin, Chang, & Chu, 2005). Humor and collaboration with colleagues and a cooperative climate also were identified as fostering creative instruction. In the classroom, creative teachers acted as facilitators, used multiple teaching technologies, and created open and welcoming classrooms (Horng, et al., 2005). In 2009, student teachers and college professors identified similar innovative

39 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 28 characteristics, although the importance of these was different for each group. Faculty ranked specific teaching for self-construction of new ideas at the top, while students felt that engaging students and providing feedback was most critical (Jaskyte, Taylor, & Smariga, 2009). A recent study (Clayburn, Ervey, & Albrecht, 2012) focused on the updated Bloom s Taxonomy, which has creating on top of the learning pyramid. Study participants were given instruction on the restructured taxonomy and then asked questions regarding teaching creativity. The participants were aspiring administrators, but were participating teachers, counselors, and instructional coaches at the time of the research. Their view was that, If there wasn t the pressure to meet AYP [adequate yearly progress], then an emphasis on creating would be used more frequently (pg. 27). These new administrators believed that school leaders are responsible for having teachers use creativity in the classroom. Creative self-efficacy has been shown to be related to creative performance (Mathisen & Bronnick, 2009). In Norway, teachers participated in one-day or five-day courses in creative problem solving. The participants were compared to a control group who did not have access to the training. The results showed that creativity training had a positive effect on individual creativity on performance tasks. While the five-day course had a greater impact, the one-day course still showed significant growth in creativity (Mathisen & Bronnick, 2009). These results were maintained after two months in a workplace setting. Lesson structure, curriculum design, and teacher preparation can be influential in education for innovation (Sawyer, 2006). Lessons should include improvisation and

40 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 29 collaboration, rather than scripted plans, to meet individual needs and allow for unplanned paths of discovery. Curriculum design should include inquiry and projectbased designs, appropriate software, and provide scaffolding for flexibility. Teachers should be taught to let go of control and allow for student-centered activities, which can be difficult for inexperienced educators. Sawyer recommended the inclusion of improvisational techniques into teacher preparation programs to improve flexibility in the classroom (2006). These three elements can improve student success in the creativity needed for today s knowledge economy. Mildrum (2000) tested a creativity curriculum model called the Ten Lessons in Creativity (TLC), which was designed to teach creativity in the regular, non-gifted classroom. The results indicated that children who participated in lessons using the model demonstrated increased understanding of creative abilities and attitudes through use of vocabulary, increased meta-creative awareness and creative abilities, as well as development of attitudes related to creativity (Mildrum, 2000). These attitudes spilled over into other areas of the classroom, and students demonstrated improved selfconfidence in their creative abilities. So-called opt-in programs, in which creative professionals work with schools to improve the innovative culture, have proved somewhat effective (Shapiro & Thompson, 2008). Head teachers in England felt such partnerships enlivened the prescribed curriculum and enhance the quality of coursework (Thompson & Sanders, 69), but a more integrated program, rather than an added on luxury, would benefit students to a greater degree. Eason, Giannangelo, and Franceschini (2009) compared private and public school students in Tennessee. Findings revealed slightly higher creativity in private school

41 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 30 students. More important, the research demonstrated a downward trend in creativity as students aged (Eason, et al., 2009). Eason, Giannangelo, and Franceschini (2009) found that public school teachers were overwhelmed with administrative and safety issues and speculated that teachers who are less stressed can spend more quality time in creative ways with students. Pre-service teachers viewed creativity as a key factor in social and personal progress and believed that this characteristic can be developed in students (Kampylis, Berki, & Saariluoma, 2009). In addition, the study indicated that students can express creativity in different domains, but many subjects in school do not provide enough opportunity for creative development. The pre-service teachers felt that they lacked training regarding creativity and its incorporation in the classroom, but believed that teachers can be influential in developing creativity (Kampylis, et al., 2009). Researchers at the University of Valencia have compiled similar research into creativity in an effort to promote creativity and innovation through an Educational Model for Creative Development (PECEI). One of the struggles in this project has been empirically measuring the characteristics of creativity, and the authors are in the process of developing a comprehensive tool for this task (Perez, 2009). The tool will focus on the process for creativity and individual traits that are needed for a person to innovate. The author identifies a mindset for creativity as the first step and writes that this belief must be the focus before teaching for creativity can progress. Creative Leadership. There are many models for making creativity practical and approachable for those leaders within this climate of accountability. One method is the Creative Problem Solving (CPS) process outlined in detail in Puccio, Murock, and Mance s Creative Leadership (2007). This resource provides multiple steps, which

42 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 31 leaders can use to move a team through the creative process systematically, alternating from convergent to divergent thinking. Another resource is Gryskiewicz s Making Creativity Practical: Innovation that Gets Results (Gryskiewicz & Taylor, 2007). The author outlined a five-step process to move toward a creative outcome. The first step is to state the problem using an open-ended question that naturally encourages many solutions. Once the problem is clear, the leader decides to utilize an incremental approach, which builds on already established procedures or a breakaway approach, which leaves the older methods completely behind (Gryskiewicz & Taylor, 2007). Using this method, next the leader would seek creative pathways to set direction for innovation. The team could use a direct, supplementary, modification, or tangential pathway to move toward a possible solution (Gryskiewicz & Taylor, 2007). The choice would depend on how far away from the current status quo the team and leader are comfortable with, and how much change is needed to reach the end goal. The team would next generate ideas using brainstorming or brain writing, a type of silent brainstorming, in which individuals write ideas on paper and silently pass the ideas around adding more thoughts until ideas are exhausted (Gryskiewicz & Taylor, 2007). The authors also recommended restating the problem, viewing the problem through multiple perspectives, the use of metaphors, making visual connections, or taking the team on a field trip as all possible techniques for maximizing idea generation. The last step is to evaluate the ideas to choose the most practical and effective one. This convergent thinking tool narrows down the list of ideas. The chosen ideas must be sold to the entire organization to gain support for implementation to occur (Gryskiewicz &

43 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 32 Taylor, 2007). This approach is similar to Puccio s, but with less detail within the specific steps. Sternberg s leadership model, specifically for educational leaders, also focused on creativity as a key element (Sternberg, 2005). His article described how the synthesis of wisdom, intelligence, and creativity is the recipe for successful leadership. Creativity is viewed here as the skills and attitudes needed in generating ideas and products that are relatively novel, high in quality, and appropriate to the task at hand (Amabile in Sternberg, 2005). The author also inferred that people make a conscious decision to be creative, rather than possessing a natural characteristic (Sternberg, 2005). Creative leaders make decisions that lead their organizations toward innovative futures. They reformulate and redefine problems, rather than hit their heads against the wall (Sternberg, 2005) and analyze solutions to determine the best possible outcome, while avoiding the worst possible results. Once a solution is identified, a creative leader is able to persuade others in the organization to listen and implement new ideas. Every leader has limits and must recognize these areas of expertise. When in unfamiliar situations, a successful leader recognizes their limits and takes only sensible risks (Sternberg, 2005). A leader who is working toward true, innovative change will certainly be confronted with numerous obstacles (Sternberg, 2005). An effective leader can surmount these obstacles with perseverance. At the same time, until results become apparent, there will be a period of ambiguity. Successful organizations can wait out this difficult period, trusting that the correct decision has been made (Sternberg, 2005). Lastly, a creative learner is also a life-long learner and is constantly searching for new and exciting ideas.

44 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 33 Numerous books, including several of Edward DeBono s, are available to teach leaders sequential actions to take in order to encourage creativity within an organization. In Creative Leadership: Skills that Drive Change, Puccio, Murdock and Mance (2007) cite a Wall Street Journal study, which demonstrated the desire for employees to possess these creative traits. These skills included visionary and strategic thinking and adaptability: the very traits that are taught in books, but not taught or encouraged in classrooms today. Today s world needs creative thought based in constructivism and design (De Bono, 1994). Leaders focus on the elements that are not working in an organization and look for ways to fix these problems. Instead, the attention needs to be on alternate visions for the future and new methods of reaching these objectives. Simple removal of faults will not necessarily lead to a better system for the future. Time management. Creative characteristics and processes take time to develop and plan; however, in education, time is not a common luxury. Recent research has shown a direct correlation between effective time management and the success in creative work (Zampetakis, Bouranta, & Moustakis, 2010). In this study, time management referred to the planning behaviors that facilitated productivity and could limit stress, including prioritization of tasks and management of possible distractions. Time pressures experienced by individuals negatively correlated with production in creative problem solving. However, those individuals who had the ability to self-regulate time and were learning-oriented applied effective strategies for creative problem solving (Zampetakis, et al., 2010). This study was comprised of 60% engineering students and left room for additional study in other areas. Nonetheless, there is evidence that a person s perception

45 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 34 of their individual control of time is positively correlated to their success in creative tasks especially ones resulting in a product (Zampetakis, et al., 2010). A similar study was conducted with 216 undergraduate students in 2011 (Darini, Pazhouhesh, & Moshiri, 2011). The results showed a positive correlation between time management (daily planning, long-term planning, perceived control of time, tenacity, and a preference for organization) and personal creativity. The authors surmised that, time management behaviors may be necessary for the effective exploitation of creative ideas (pg. 211). These results confirmed those in the 2010 study in Greece (Zampetakis, et al. Moustakis, 2010) and used similar methods and tools. Claessans and colleagues investigated behaviors associated with planning and an individual s perceived control of time (Claessens, Van Eerde, Rutte, & Roe, 2004). In this study, planning behaviors referred to any decisions made by a worker to determine priority of tasks, dealing with distractions, and considered the effect of simultaneous tasks. Several studies are noted which suggest correlation between planning behavior and perceptions over control of time. Such a feeling of control leads to job satisfaction, productivity, and improved health (Claessens, et al., 2004). This was found to be especially true in positions in which there was high autonomy paired with a high workload. Collinson (2001) explored teachers perceptions of time, as time is considered a necessary factor of any change movement. Her research demonstrated that time is needed for collaboration to build a culture of organizational learning in schools. In general, teachers felt that there was a lack of discretionary time, collaborative time, uninterrupted and unpressured time (Collinson, 2001). There was also a perception of

46 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 35 being overwhelmed with a great deal of paperwork, new initiatives, and outside obligations that led to negative feelings from teachers (Collinson, 2001). Creativity is a process which needs time for trial and error and personal reflection, both of which are difficult in an environment under high time stress. Time pressure on creative tasks were studied in 2002 (Amabile, et al., 2002). Prior research had shown little, and contradictory, results. Through statistical analysis, the authors concluded that time pressures impacted creativity. Specifically, there was a significant negative relationship between creative processing and time pressure. Contrary to the original prediction, the research demsonstrated a strong positive correlation between intrinsic motivation and time pressure (Amabile, et al., 2002). While this study does not adress education in any way, teachers are certainly under time pressure, which may impact their ability to be creative. Peeters and Rutte (2005) examined the relationships between time management and burnout among elementary teachers in the Netherlands. The research resolved that emotional exhaustion, as well as poor time management, were highly correlated with teacher burnout. The conclusions included practical advice for educators. Specifically, improved time management, goal prioritization, and self-progress monitoring can decrease emotional exhaustion and burnout (Peeters & Rutte, 2005). Teacher autonomy was found to have a minimizing effect on emotional exhaustions, regardless of time management behavior. Current climate in United States public education. Schooling in America was once only available to wealthy families of high status. Over time, a more literate society and an educated citizenry became desired and by 1918, all states required a minimum of

47 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 36 an elementary education to be available to all Americans. Over time, as the need for a more educated public grew along with changing industrial occupations, regulation of public schooling also increased. The federal government expanded the financial and legislative commitments to public education in 1958 with the National Defense Education Act and in 1965 with the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. Originally passed in 1975, Public Law , later renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, called for all students, regardless of disability to have access to a free and appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment. These regulations built a universal access system to education without mandating success for all students. Children were to attend schools funded by the government, and parents were responsible for compulsory attendance in these programs until a specified age. Schools were permitted to teach curriculum that they alone, under the supervision of the locally elected Board, deemed appropriate. Unfortunately, the government did not monitor student success in a consistent manner, leaving decisions and assessment under local control. The release of the A Nation at Risk report in 1983 initiated the beginning of a new era. Public citizens and legislators demanded an increase in the quality of America s public schools to produce more competitive graduates. This movement culminated in 2001 with the passage of NCLB, a reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. This law moved beyond universal access toward a system of universal proficiency, with a mandated target of 100% of students reaching stated goals by Schools demonstrate success through standardized assessments based on state standards, which differ across the United States. Data must be disaggregated to show gaps in

48 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 37 student groups, including those with learning disabilities, the economically disadvantaged, and those in minority groups. If one faction does not meet the set standards, the entire school is deemed unsuccessful. Although there have been overall increases in the use of assessment data, controversy exists regarding the methods used and the serious nature of certain penalties given to unsuccessful schools. Today, educators are fighting for, and legislators are considering, changes to the NCLB law, which would allow for accountability using varied methods. Nonetheless, the United States will not leave the idea of universal proficiency far behind as the world becomes more competitive than ever in the 21 st Century. Universal access is no longer deemed sufficient and schools will continue to need to address and meet the needs of each student. Bracey investigated the relationship between test scores and international competitiveness (2002). He compared the Current Competitiveness Index (CCI) with scores on the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMMS). Although, Bracey found a slight positive correlation between these variables, he found the test scores comprised less than 5% of a nation s competiveness (Bracey, 2002). The United States excels in innovation and lacks the brain drain seen in other nations in which scientist and engineers leave the country for other opportunities. In fact, the only area in which Bracey felt the United States needed improvement was in the quality between rich and poor scores, which is one of the goals of NCLB (Bracey, 2002). High stakes testing discourages creative thinking and leads students to believe there is only one correct answer to a problem. American students have been encouraged to question and express their individual opinions for over a century skills that are not as

49 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 38 valued in other cultures around the world. This combative culture leaves us with an edge in creativity (Bracey, 2002, p. 42). However, over the past 20 years, scores on the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT) have declined in the United States (Kim, 2011) in a steady and persistent manner (Kim, p. 293). These declines have occurred as standardized testing has increased nationwide and across all age groups and were highlighted in the July 2010 issue of Newsweek. The economic approach of accountability through standardized testing sets unrealistic goals for schools to attain. NCLB is evaluated through the lens of constructivist theory by Shapiro and Thompson (2008): This fundamental goal of NCLB of 100% proficiency appears to be more fantasy than a realistic aim in view of the enormous impact of poverty and other cultural factors impacting students in the United States, and, presumably, other nations with the considerable discrepancies generated by poverty. NLCB has constructed a Lake Wobegone artificial mythological world where all the children are above average, the men are handsome and the women are strong. (p. 5) Teachers teach to the test focusing primarily on low level thinking skills and fact memorization, decreasing classroom focus on critical thinking skills. However, constructivist theory requires students to build new understandings upon previous knowledge, experiences, and attitudes. Such classrooms focus on an individualized approach and begin where the child is in his or her learning and abilities with goals of a more individualized nature (Shapiro & Thompson, 2008). Inquiry based learning, using the five E s: engagement, exploration, explanation, elaboration, and evaluation can be

50 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 39 used to meet the needs of a standards-based curriculum while still meeting the need for creativity in the classroom (Longo, 2010). While this recommendation was primarily in the area of science education, it could be applicable in all subject areas. Twenty-first century learning skills such as innovation, creativity, and adaptability closely resemble constructivist theory. Teachers and educational leaders feel the conflicting pull between the high accountability of NCLB, based on traditional 20 th Century knowledge, and the importance of new skills for today s world (Schoen & Fusarelli, 2008). The 21 st Century skills movement places less prominence on specific, testable skills and more on those aligned with constructivist theory. In addition, schools in a high-stakes, sanction based environment function in an atmosphere of fear and stress (Schoen & Fusarelli, 2008). This feeling affects teachers and administrators alike who are held personally accountable when schools do not make progress on such high-stakes testing requirements. This has caused a decrease nationwide in innovation within classrooms and schools alike as educators attempt to meet the qualifications under NCLB. There is an ever-present struggle between the push for innovation and change in the face of increasing accountability and policy demands, while competition from charter schools raises the need for creative solutions further. Educators must possess a sense of urgency and understanding, paired with curiosity and a sense of efficacy before creativity and innovation become apparent (Davis, 2006). School leaders can provide the catalysts needed to bring about change through creative solutions from all stakeholders, promoting distributed leadership throughout the organization. Davis (2006) discussed multiple obstacles for creativity including pressures for accountability, dwindling fiscal resources,

51 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 40 and public pressure. If school leaders can minimize administrative pressures as outlined in Eason, Giannangelo, and Franceschini (2009), teachers will be less stressed and be able to spend increased time on creative pursuits with students. Bunting speaks of the need for teachers to make teaching personal in the current climate (Bunting, 2007). She states that scripted instruction or the de-localization of curriculum will not pass soon and offers strategies for teachers to survive and be creative nonetheless. Teachers should think back to why they initially entered the profession and what they desire to accomplish in the role. Visualizations of these ideals can assist in reinforcing these images, while daydreaming and self-reflection are necessary. Learning from model teachers and become mentors themselves can help teachers to survive the stress related to the environment of high accountability (Bunting, 2007). Connections. Certainly, there is a great deal of research on creativity and time management. Nonetheless, a potential connection between these two variables has been explored only by Zampetakis and colleagues (2010), and the study did not consider such a possible relationship for teachers. The current standards-based environment, caused in part by NCLB, has greatly transformed the perspectives of educators across the country and must be considered in light of any change effort. Creative leadership will be necessary to effect change in secondary education regarding creativity in teaching and instruction in the creative thinking skills needed for success in the global environment.

52 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 41 Chapter Three: Research Methodology Introduction Due to ever-changing technology and increasing globalization, the United States faces an unprecedented level of economic and creative competition (Rosling, 2011). Education is viewed as the best method for moving a citizenry forward into the future. Nonetheless, the public education system within the United States has not moved toward sustainable change that will allow citizens of an unknown future to prosper in this global setting. In this era of increased standardization and accountability, American teachers feel the conflict between designing lessons which will lead to higher assessment scores and those which encourage creative thinking and ingenuity (Schoen & Fusarelli, 2008). All things being equal, teachers would choose to engage students creative thinking abilities, but since time is not a luxury today s teachers have, and continued pressure rises to improve test scores, teachers are often forced to abandon creative instruction. Recent research has shown a direct correlation between effective time management and the success in creative work (Zampetakis, Bouranta, & Moustakis, 2010). Claessans, VanEerde, Rutte and Roe (2004) investigated planning behaviors and perceived control of time. Behaviors included decisions made by a worker to determine priority of tasks, to deal with distractions, and considered the effects of simultaneous tasks. Feelings of control over time lead to job satisfaction, productivity, and improved health (Claessens, et al., 2004). Autonomy over time combined with knowledge of creative problem solving skills can allow teachers to move others toward the creation of unique solutions to the most discouraging problems facing schools today.

53 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 42 The purpose of this study was to determine the levels of correlation that exist between time management and creativity in secondary teaching within a standards-based environment. This research provides educators with another tool to minimize obstacles in the creative process for teachers. A mixed-methods approach was used for this study to allow for an in-depth investigation into the connection between time management and creativity in teaching. Primary data was quantitative in nature, measuring time management skills and teacher creativity. Qualitative data in the form of teacher interviews was coded and analyzed to add further complexity to the study. Such a mixedmethods approach allowed the researcher to add qualitative depth to an otherwise quantitative study, blending both types of data to create a clearer understanding of the problem (Creswell, 2008). Site and Population. The chosen site for this study was a school district in Pennsylvania, which was experiencing similar problems to the rest of the nation. The sample was taken from this population of teachers and focused solely on those in secondary education. Population description. The research sample consisted of teachers within a single district located in Central Pennsylvania. There were 162 teachers in the District in the school year, with 108 (N = 108) teachers in the middle and high schools combined. Secondary teachers within this district typically teach a single content area to an average of six or seven classes of students per day. Teachers in grades five and six, both located in the middle school, were removed (n = 11) due to the nature of the definition of secondary teacher (grades seven through 12). One additional teacher was removed due to the nature of a professional improvement plan. Special education

54 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 43 teachers (n = 20) were not used in the study as, within the specified district, the role of these teachers varied greatly. In addition, teachers in supporting roles, such as counselors and librarians, were removed (n = 9). A sample of 67 teachers were invited to participate using census sampling to ensure teachers from varied content areas were included, while maximizing the sample size for increased power. Census sampling was chosen to disallow the majority of the sample to teach only core subjects, such as English and art, traditionally considered more creative in nature, and to allow for maximum participation. Teachers in the sample taught mathematics, reading/literature, science, social studies, physical education, business, music/art or technical courses. All teachers who fit the definition of a secondary teacher, with the specific removals listed above, were invited to participate. Eight teachers chose to decline participation in the project. From the initial quantitative sample, a smaller group of four teachers was chosen to participate in further qualitative data collection. These teachers were those that scored in the top quartile in the areas of time management and personal creativity to explore the nature of these characteristics in further depth. Site description. The district was located in central Pennsylvania within a twenty-minute drive from the state capitol of Harrisburg. The area was home to numerous farms and wooded areas, two boroughs, and five townships together classified as a rural (fringe) school district by the National Center for Education Statistics (2010). The district consisted of three schools: one elementary, one middle, and one high school, which included an alternative education facility. All physical facilities were located on a single campus between the Susquehanna River and a privately owned mountain where

55 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 44 students move from one building to another during the school day to meet their individual educational levels. According to the United States Census Bureau (2009), the district had a population of 14,619 people, with 2,387 children between the ages of five and seventeen. As of January 2012, approximately 1800 students were enrolled in the district, which had been experiencing declining enrollment for the past several years. The percentage of minority students was 5.6%, and the district hired the first English Language Learner teacher in the school year to serve the increasingly diverse population relocating to the area. The vast economic downturn since 2008 coincided with an increase in the percentage of students classified as economically disadvantaged (31.6%). The special education department provided services to approximately 350 students, which represented 18.5% of the student population. There were 162 teachers employed by the district in the school year. Academically, the district successfully achieved Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) in 2011 in all categories. Before 2008, the middle school had been performing below acceptable targets and was facing state takeover. The combination of teacher accountability, a consistent instructional model, a new administrative team, and multiple curriculum adjustments had improved student performance on standardized assessments, most notably the Pennsylvania System of School Assessment (PSSA). Site access. The researcher is an administrator for the district with relatively open access to data and data management systems. She has been in this position for four years and developed professional relationships with key district personnel and teachers. These relationships enabled the researcher to gain support from the chosen sample without

56 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 45 allowing for bias in the results. In January 2011, the researcher had verbal permission to complete the study within the district from both the high school building principal and the superintendent. Written permission from the superintendent was received in Personal meetings with each of the stakeholders helped to clarify any necessary information. The researcher did not need permission from the Board of School Directors for this research. The most prominent challenge for completion of the study was time constraints for both the sample members and the researcher. Using technology to complete most of the surveys allowed flexibility in time. In addition, the researcher was permitted to complete interviews and some data collection during the school day, which helped to overcome this obstacle. Research Design and Rationale The research utilized a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative analysis with qualitative elements. Quantitative data enumerated teachers time management skills and creativity, both as a personal characteristic and in the realm of instruction. The correlation design was based on that used by Zampetakis and associates (Zampetakis, Bouranta, & Moustakis, 2010), and incorporated similar measures from multiple authors. A qualitative extension provided depth and perspective into the areas of creativity and time management. With quality research in the areas of creativity and time management, educational leaders can better assist teachers in making practical changes to improve ingenuity in teaching and increase quality student learning. These approaches were chosen due to the post-positivist view of the researcher, who desired a scientific approach while investigating multiple perspectives of teachers

57 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 46 within a specific context. The researcher viewed qualitative data through an ontological lens, desiring to use varied perspectives derived from the direct quotes of the individual participants. The surrounding environment, experiencing high levels of change due to economic conditions, globalization, and the standardization of American public education was considered as well, using a postmodernist point of view. Research Methods Introduction List of Methods Used. Quantitative analysis Surveys/Questionnaires Standardized assessment Qualitative analysis Semi-Structured Interviews Grounded Theory coding Stages of Data Collection. The research occurred in four stages, as shown in Figure 3. In the fall of 2011, the proposal was completed under the direction of the dissertation committee. The research proposal was defended and accepted by the committee on November 30, Data collection began in February 2012 in multiple phases followed by statistical analysis in the early spring. Qualitative data in the form of interviews, was collected, coded, and used to generate a theory of creativity and time management in the secondary classroom.

58 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 47 Stage Two Winter 2012 Stage Four Summer 2012 Stage One Fall 2011 Stage Three Spring 2012 Figure 3: Research timeline During the fall of 2011, the researcher created demographic questions (Appendix A). These data were used during analysis to compare groups based on subject area, experience, and family life. The quantitative tools (Appendix B H) were obtained via electronic mail from several authors, along with the permission to use the respective instruments for this research. A pilot study of the quantitative instruments was not needed due to their demonstrated reliability and validity in previous research. Interview questions for the qualitative portion of the study were drafted during stage one and appear in Appendix I. A brief pilot study of these questions was completed prior to use to check for quality. Two teachers outside the projected sample were

59 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 48 interviewed to test questions for clarity and completeness. The questions were revised as needed based on this information. Quantitative data collection began in February 2012, after the researcher obtained all needed permissions from Drexel University and the school district. Primary data consisted of numerical scores to quantify time management skill, personal creativity, and the fostering of creativity in the classroom. These data were used for correlational analysis using IBM SPSS, Version 19, software. Semi-structured interviews occurred in the spring of 2012 to determine how creative teachers manage time in the current environment. The interviews were transcribed and coded to identify themes and develop a theory for time management and creativity in teaching. Survey. Instrument Description. Multiple instruments (Table 1) were used to gauge teachers time management skills, personal creativity, and likeliness to foster student creativity.

60 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 49 Research tools Title Author Scores Abbreviated Torrance Test for Adults Self-survey Creative Personality Scale Instructional Practices Questionnaire I Epistemological Beliefs in Teaching and Learning Questionnaire Instructional Practices Questionnaire II Time Management Behavior Scale Time Management Questionnaire Table 1 Survey tools Personal creativity Goff and Torrance Fluency, Originality, Elaboration, (2002) Flexibility, Creativity Index Zampetakis et. al. (2010) Production of Creative Ideas, Based on Zhao and Production of Useful Ideas, total score George (2001) and Claessans (2004) Gough (1979) Summative scale Fostering creativity in the classroom Multiple perspectives, Transfer, Task commitment, Creative skill use, Collaboration Hong and Associates Perspectives of learning, (2009) Perspectives of knowledge Goals for performance, Goals for learning Time management Setting goals and priorities, Mechanics Macan (1994) of time management, Preference for organization, Perceived control of time Daily planning, Confidence in longterm planning, Perceived control of Trueman and Hartley (1996) time

61 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 50 Time Management Behavior Scale. Time management skills were assessed using a questionnaire and process outlined by Macan (1990), which required respondents to rate statements using a five-point Likert-type scale. This specific tool, referred to as the Time Management Behavior Scale (Appendix B), has been utilized throughout relevant literature since its original publication. Dr. Macan granted written permission to use the scale on February 10, 2011 with a request that the researcher share the results when completed. Thirty-four total items were organized into four sections. The first section measured Setting Goals and Priorities. Items included, I look for ways to increase the efficiency with which I perform my work activities and I break complex, difficult projects down into smaller manageable tasks. Eleven items measured Mechanics of Time Management. Sample statements were, I make a list of things to do each day, and If I know I will have to spend time waiting, I bring along something I can work on. The third category, with items including, The time I spend scheduling and organizing my workday is time wasted, and, I have some of my most creative ideas when I am disorganized were mostly reverse scored to gauge a Preference for Organization. The final subscale measured Perceived Control of Time with additional reverse scored items such as, I find it difficult to keep to a schedule because others take me away from my work, and I find myself procrastinating on tasks that I don't like but that must be done. Macan reported inter-item reliability for the total score of 0.68, with subscale ratings of 0.83, 0.62, 0.69, and 0.60 (1990) respectively using Cronbach s coefficient alpha. Females scored higher than males, while race did not appear to be a factor (Macan, 1990).

62 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 51 Time Management Scale. The scale was created by combining questions from the work of Trueman and Hartley (1996), as well as items from the Claessans scale (2004), as was done in the work of Zampetakis et al. (2010). The researcher had the permission of Dr. Zampetakis (February 2011) to use the scale as was used in his research on time management and creativity. Dr. Trueman also provided his permission on October 27, Zampetakis calculated Cronbach s reliability coefficient alpha to be 0.87 for the subsection on Daily Planning and Confidence in Long-Term Planning and a value of 0.71 in the area of Perceived Control of Time (2010). Specific items and scoring procedures can be found in Appendix C. Sample items include, Do you make a list of the things you have to do each day?, Do you regularly review your (lesson plans) lecture notes, even when a (lesson) test is not imminent?, and I feel confident that I am able to complete my work on time. Participants chose an answer based on a five-point Likert scale using the categories always, frequently, sometimes, infrequently, and never. Five items were reversed-scored, and participants had three sub scores, as well as a total value. Creative Personality Scale. Gough s Creative Personality Scale (CPS) was developed as a subscale of the Adjective Checklist developed in 1965 (Gough, 1979). The scale (Appendix D) can be easily obtained through a simple Internet search and has been used widely in a multitude of literature. It was comprised of 30 adjectives, with 12 (e.g. confident, egotistical, humorous) having a negative value and 18 (e.g. conservative, sincere, conventional) a positive score. A summation gave the final score with values from -12 to +18. Coefficient alpha ratings ranging from 0.73 to 0.81 were initially

63 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 52 reported (Gough, 1979), with similar high values reported Zampetakis et al. at 0.75 (2010) as well as acceptable internal construct reliability. Self-Rating of Creativity. A self-rating of creativity (Appendix E) was developed by Zampetakis, et al. (2010) using eight items based on the work of Zhou and George (2001). Those items were scored on a seven-point Likert scale in two categories. The production of creative ideas consisted of four items including, I come up with creative solutions to problems and was found to have a reliability value of The production of useful ideas consisted of four additional items including, I came up with new and practical ideas to improve performance and was found to have a reliability value of 0.83 (Zampetakis, et al., 2010). Each of the four items were averaged to obtain two subscores. The total score was a summation of all eight items with a Cronbach alpha of Instructional Practices Questionnaire I. Hong et al. (2009) developed several instruments to measure aspects of fostering creativity in students. The Instructional Practices Questionnaire I (Appendix F) measured teachers perceptions of instructional practices that facilitate the development of creative thinking in students (Hong, 2009). The questionnaire consisted of 39 items measuring five constructs: multiple perspectives in problem solving, transfer, task commitment, creative skill use, and collaboration. A general statement, Students in my class are given opportunities to began the survey followed by specific examples of classroom practices. Example items were: solve problems that have more than one answer (multiple perspectives in problem solving); apply their knowledge and skills in different or unfamiliar situations (transfer); select their own topics for assignments or projects (creative skill use); demonstrate commitment to tasks (task commitment); and work in groups (collaboration).

64 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 53 Respondents chose answers on a four-point scale from almost never (1) to almost always (4). The authors (2009) reported internal consistency estimates (coefficient alpha) for each sub score between 0.75 and Epistemological Beliefs of Teaching and Learning. This scale (Appendix G) was created in 2005 (Hong, Hartzell, & Nadelson) to determine two subscale scores for a teachers beliefs about the nature of learning and the nature of knowledge on 26 mixed items (Hong, et al., 2009). Example items included Having students form their own ideas is more important than teaching what the textbooks say (nature of learning) and If students can t understand something quickly, it usually means they will never understand it (nature of knowledge). Respondents replied to each item using a four-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (4). Internal consistency estimates were recorded of 0.65 for the nature of knowledge and 0.85 for the nature of learning (Hong, et al., 2009). Instructional Practices Questionnaire II. This questionnaire (Appendix H) measured teachers instructional practices as demonstrated in the tasks and materials provided for students (Hong, et al., 2009). Participants chose responses on a four-point Likert scale ranging from not at all true (1) to very true (4) on a questionnaire consisting of 32 items. The items began with a general statement, In my class. followed by descriptions of tasks and materials to gauge student learning and student performance; dividing the score into two subscales. Example items included, I focus on students' test performance because good test scores indicate that I taught well and I assign homework to my students that helps increase their test performance in the area of student performance. In the area of student learning, items included, I establish learning

65 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 54 opportunities for my students where their effort and persistence count as much as their performance, and I instruct my students to change their learning strategies when necessary. Internal consistency estimates were 0.87 in both student performance and student learning (Hong, et al., 2009). Standardized Assessment. The Abbreviated Torrance Test for Adults (ATTA) is a norm-referenced assessment of general creativity skills consisting of both figural and verbal responses. It is a shortened form of the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking specifically for use in adults. According to the testing manual (2002), the abbreviated version provides an indicator of real-life creative achievement, with sub-scales in fluency, originality, elaboration, and flexibility. A Creativity Index was calculated for each participant as a summative value. The Mental Measurements Yearbook, version 17, reported a mean of 69.4 (SD = 10.9) with substantial levels over 85, and scores ranging from 44 to 106 (2005). Interrater reliability coefficients of the four subscales were found to range from 0.88 to 0.97, with a total reliability for the Creativity Index of 0.85 (Athanasou, J.A. & Bugbee, A.C., 2007). The researcher purchased the test from Scholastic Testing Service, Inc. (STS) at a cost, and used outside scorers for enhanced reliability. Identification and Invitation. The researcher attended a faculty meeting at each of the schools to present basic information regarding the study and participation. All teachers in grades 7 through 12 had the opportunity to hear the initial information. The proposed participants (n = 67) were sent a formal invitation electronically, along with the written consent form (Appendix J). Additionally, the superintendent also sent information to confirm that this study would be beneficial to the district and would not be

66 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 55 evaluative in any way, further encouraging participation. The researcher offered to meet with participants individually to answer specific questions about the research or assessments. Fifty-nine (n = 59) teachers of the initial 67 accepted the invitation providing an 88.1% response rate. Written permission (Appendix J) was acquired from all participants and a three-digit random number was assigned to each teacher to ensure confidentiality. Data Collection. Demographic data and the questionnaires described above (Appendix A H) were translated into an electronic format using Survey Monkey and sent via electronic mail to the teachers in six parts to minimize length of time needed. Each section was brief and assessed different aspects of the research questions time management, personal creativity, and teaching for creativity. A completion date was provided for each section and reminders were sent to all participants to obtain a better response rate. The following schedule (Table 2) was used for the survey collection over six weeks.

67 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 56 Week Instrument Demographics Creative Personality Scale Self-Report of Creativity Time Management Behavior Scale Instructional Practices Questionnaire I Epistemological Beliefs in Teaching and Learning Time Management Scale Instructional Practices Questionnaire II Table 2 Survey schedule The standardized assessment (ATTA) was given in two sessions on February 20, That in-service day provided the researcher with access to the participant group on the district campus for ease of testing. The researcher, who had experience with standardized testing as an experienced educator, proctored the 15-minute exam with the use of an electronic timer for consistency with administrative guidelines. The test was given following all guidelines in the manual from STS. The score sheets were returned promptly to this company, who provided scores for the participants at a cost. This ensured that trained and experienced personnel, providing consistent levels of reliability, completed scoring.

68 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 57 All electronic data was transcribed into IBM s SPSS, Version 19 software by the researcher. Individual questions, as well as all subscales and total scores for each instrument were calculated and stored in the program. Data Analysis. Descriptive statistics were calculated for each demographic variable to provide a general picture of the sample. Percentages of gender, time in the classroom, education level, content area, marital status, and children in the household were calculated. The percentage of participants who had previous training in time management was also calculated using IBM SPSS, Version 19. These data helped to paint a picture of the participants and their relevant education, time in the position, and type of family commitments. Data analysis was completed weekly as the surveys were completed. Cronbach s alpha was calculated for all subscales and summative values to measure reliability. The Creative Personality Scale (Gough, 1979) was completed in the first week. Percentages were calculated for each of the 30 related characteristics and the summative value, or Creative Personality Scale (CPS), was found for each participant. This value is a summation with positive characteristics given a value of +1 and negative values a -1. The overall group s mean and standard deviation, as well as the range of scores was calculated. In addition, the mean and standard deviation for each gender group was calculated and a two-tailed t-test for independent samples was used to determine differences in gender, as recommended by Gough (1979). The Self-Report of Creativity (Zhou & George, 2010) was also completed in the first phase of data collection. The mean and standard deviations were calculated for two subscales with four items each: The Production of Creative Ideas and the Production of

69 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 58 Useful Ideas. The mean of all eight items provided the Self-Report of Creativity. In addition, percentages were calculated for the responses for each of the eight items on the Likert scale. The Self-Report of Creativity was compared to the work of Zampetakis et al. (2010) but the subscales were not, as they were not available. Trained scorers for a fee through STS scored the Abbreviated Torrance Test of Creativity (ATTA), and individual participant reports were sent to the researcher. Subscale scores in Fluency, Originality, Elaboration, Flexibility, and the Creativity Index were transcribed into IBM s SPSS, Version 19. The researcher calculated the mean and standard deviation for the participant group in all four subscales and the Creativity Index. These values were compared with the nationally normative values from STS. The results for each participant were next combined to create a summative value to measure personal creativity. First, the Creative Personality Scale (CPS), the Self- Report of Creativity (SRC), and the Creativity Index (CI) were converting these scores to standard scores (z-scores) using IBM s SPSS, Version 19. Standard scores ensure that each scale is weighed the same in the final calculation. The summative value for personal creativity was calculated by finding the sum of these three standard scores and is a combination of self-reported and standardized values. The mean and standard deviation was calculated for the participant group and then was calculated by content area. These values also were ranked from high to low, which was later used to rank participants for interview selection. This summative value was used to correlate overall personal creativity with time management and the likelihood to foster creativity. The Instructional Practices Questionnaire I given in March 2012, consisted of 39 items measuring five constructs: multiple perspectives in problem solving, transfer, task

70 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 59 commitment, creative skill use, and collaboration. Each participant received five subscales (one for each construct) and an overall score, consisting of summation of the sub-scales. Finding the mean of the items in each construct created these. The final value was calculated by finding the summation of the five construct subscales. Standard deviations were also calculated for these means. In addition, percentages were calculated for each item to identify extremely high or low responses on the Likert scale. The Epistemological Beliefs in Teaching and Learning scale classified 26 items into the Nature of Learning and the Nature of Knowledge. The mean of the items in each categories was calculated, providing two distinct subscales. The sum of these two means provided an overall score for each participant. Standard deviations were also calculated for these values and percentages were found for each item to identify high or low responses on the Likert scale. The Instructional Practices Questionnaire II was separated into two subscales: Performance Goals and Learning Goals. The mean and standard deviation of each scale were calculated and summed to provide a summative value for each participant. The means were used to compare the results of this research to past studies. The summation scores were also averaged and the minimum and maximum scores identified. Percentages were calculated for each of the 32 items according to the four-point Likert scale to look for high or low standouts. The results for each participant were combined to create a summative value to measure the likelihood to foster student creativity. First, the Instructional Practices Questionnaire I (IPQ1), the Epistemological Beliefs in Teaching and Learning (EBTL), and the Instructional Practices Questionnaire II (IPQ2) scores were converted to standard

71 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 60 scores (z-scores) using IBM s SPSS, Version 19. The summative value for fostering creativity was calculated by finding the sum of these three standard scores. The mean and standard deviation was then calculated for the participant group and then was considered by content area. These values were also ranked from highest to lowest, which was later used to rank participants for interview selection. This summative value was used to correlate the likelihood to foster creativity with personal creativity and time management. Time management skills were assessed using the Time Management Behavior Scale using a process outlined by Macan (1990) which required respondents to rate statements using a five-point Likert-type scale. Eleven items were reverse-scored using IBM s SPSS, Version 19 prior to computing the mean values. Next, the mean and standard deviation for each of four subscales was calculated. The final value for each participant was the sum of the four subscale scores. The mean and standard deviation were calculated for the final value as had been reported in previous research. The final results were compared by gender using two-tailed t-tests for independent samples as recommended by Macan (1990). Finally, percentages for each of the 34 items were calculated to compare responses to the Likert scale. The Time Management Scale (Zampetakis, et. al, 2010) looks at three categories. Five items were first reverse-scored using IBM SPSS, Version 19. Next, the mean and standard deviations were calculated for each of the three subscales (Daily Planning, Confidence in Long-Term Planning, and Perceived Control of Time). The summation of the three subscales provided a total value for each participant. The overall mean and

72 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 61 standard deviation was calculated for comparison purposes. Finally, percentages were calculated for each item to compare to the five-point Likert scale. The time management results for each participant were combined to create a summative value. First, the Time Management Behavior Scale and the Time Management Scale scores were converted to standard scores (z-scores) using IBM s SPSS, Version 19. The summative value for time management was calculated by finding the sum of these two standard scores. The mean and standard deviation was then calculated for the participant group and then was considered by content area. These values were also ranked from highest to lowest, which was later used to rank participants for interview selection. This summative value was used to correlate time management with both personal creativity and the likelihood to foster creativity. Scatterplots were created to determine the appearance of linear relationships between time management vs. personal creativity, time management vs. the likelihood to foster creativity and personal creativity vs. the likelihood to foster creativity. These scatterplots were produced using the summative values for each variable. Pearson s r was calculated for each of the three correlations to determine the nature between the variables of time management, personal creativity, and the likelihood to foster student creativity. Additional correlations were completed using Pearson s r to identify potential relationships between subscale and final values for related surveys. For personal creativity, the Creativity Personality Scale (CPS), Production of Creative Ideas (SRC), Production of Useful Ideas (SRC), the final Self-Report of Creativity (SRC), Fluency (ATTA), Originality (ATTA), Elaboration (ATTA), Flexibility (ATTA), and the

73 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 62 Creativity Index (ATTA) were considered. The final Time Management Behavior Scale (TMBS), Setting Goals and Priorities (TMBS), Mechanics of Time Management (TMBS), Preference for Organization (TMBS), Perceived Control of Time (TMBS), Daily Planning (TMS), Long-Term Planning (TMS), Perceived Control of Time (TMS) and the total Time Management Scale (TMS) were utilized for comparisons related to time management. In relating the likelihood to foster creativity, Multiple Perspectives in Problem Solving (IPQ1), Transfer (IPQ1), Task Commitment (IPQ1), Creative Skill Use (IPQ1), Collaboration (IPQ1), Nature of Knowledge (EBTL), Nature of Learning (EBTL), Learning Goals (IPQ2), and Performance Goals (IPQ2) were considered. Values for r were considered low at 0.20 to 0.40, moderate at 0.40 to 0.60, high for 0.60 to 0.80, and substantial from 0.80 to 1.00 (Ravid, 2011). A minimum level of significance (p-value) of 0.05 was used to test the validity of the alternate hypotheses. Tables were used to display the calculated values clearly. Interviews Instrument Description. Interview questions were drafted by the researcher based on information from the literature review on barriers and encouraging factors for fostering student creativity and admirable use of time. A semi-structured interview format was used to allow for greater depth based on the participants responses using a core of eleven questions (Appendix I). The questions were piloted with two teachers who were not part of the research sample to check for appropriate wording and clarity. Participant Selection. Four teachers who scored within the top quartile in personal creativity and time management skills were chosen to participate in the

74 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 63 interviews. The responses were used to develop a theory of why those teachers were able to be creative in a standards-based, time pressured environment. Identification and Invitation. The researcher, who completed the interviews in March 2012 at the teachers convenience, invited the four teachers through electronic mail. All were able and willing to participate in the final stage. Data Collection. The interviews were recorded using a digital recording device and saved by anonymous file names using the teacher s assigned numerical code to protect the participants. Those recordings were transcribed into text for analysis by the researcher. Data Analysis. The transcribed data were coded into themes using a grounded theory design and recommendations of Creswell (2007). Specifically, coding led to a central phenomenon, which hypothesized why a teacher can be successful in fostering creativity in today s atmosphere. An analytical aid was created to visually explain the theory to the readers. Ethical Considerations This study included gathering data on secondary teachers creativity and time management skills connected to fostering student creativity. The researcher was one of several supervisors for the teachers at one of two school buildings and completed regular formal and informal observations of these individuals. These relationships brought forth several minor ethical considerations. First and foremost, the researcher obtained written informed consent and participation in the study was voluntary. Information regarding the study was presented

75 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 64 in a written form with follow-up conversations and a verbal presentation to aide in understanding of the process and use of the data. The identities of the participants were kept confidential using a numerical coding system, consisting of a random three-digit number. This code was linked to the participant in a document that was only used by the researcher and was password protected. During data collection, all documents used this code, rather than the individuals name, for identification. In the written report and any further publications, pseudonyms, rather than numerical codes, were used for easier reading. As a supervisor, the researcher was aware of the dual nature of these roles. Data used for research purposes was not used for evaluative purposes. Vice versa, data, which are collected for evaluative purposes related to the supervisory role, was not added to the data for this particular study. Data was not shared with either building principal or other district administrators in a manner which could be linked to the individual participant and reflect upon them as a professional. If at any time, a teacher participant was under a professional improvement plan, which required the researcher to be involved in the process of intense evaluation, the researcher removed this individual from the data collection process. One teacher was eliminated from the research due to this factor. This ensured that the role of employer and researcher were kept separate at all times. The researcher obtained Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval for this study due to the use of human subjects for data collection. While not controversial, time management and creativity skills are personal characteristics, and the nature of the data was somewhat sensitive. These data were collected and analyzed for eventual

76 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 65 publication and will be shared outside of the school district. Therefore, IRB approval through Drexel University was required and obtained.

77 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 66 Chapter Four: Findings and Results Introduction This study was designed to investigate the relationships between creativity in secondary education and time management within the current standards-based environment. Specifically, the mixed-methods study examined three main variables: personal creativity, the likelihood to foster creativity in students, and time management skills in secondary teachers. First, the researcher collected quantitative data through electronic surveys and standardized testing. Second, semi-structured interviews occurred to add depth to the initial data and a qualitative element to the research. The individual variables were analyzed and correlations were used to examine possible relationships between the variables. Grounded Theory, based on the recommendations of Creswell (2007), allowed the researcher to examine interview data through coding to develop a theory for school leaders to use in the area of creativity in teaching. This chapter will answer, How are creativity and time management related in secondary education within a standards-based environment? Several sub-questions guided the research at both the quantitative and qualitative stages: What level of correlation exists between secondary teachers - time management skills and personal creativity? - time management skills and likelihood to foster student creativity? - personal creativity and likelihood to foster student creativity? How are some teachers highly creative while demonstrating effective time management within a standards-based environment?

78 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 67 Participant Demographics In January 2012, the researcher invited 67 teachers of grades seven through 12 within a small, rural (fringe) school district in central Pennsylvania to participate in the study. Brief information sessions occurred at two faculty meetings, and 59 teachers (n = 59) completed consent forms to participate, leading to an 88.1% response rate. All 59 participants completed all six electronic surveys over a period of six weeks to gather demographic data and survey responses. Digital surveys using Survey Monkey were chosen for participant flexibility and increased participation. Electronic mail reminders were sent toward the end of each data collection window to ensure high participation rates and yielded a 100% participation rate. The Abbreviated Torrance Test for Adults (ATTA) was given to all participants on February 20, 2012 as part of an in-service session. Follow-up interviews occurred in May The gender division of the participant group was relatively equivalent with 45.8% male and 54.2% female. Only 10.2% of the participants were new teachers within their first three years in the profession and 44% had at least 15 years classroom experience. Fifty-four percent of the teachers had completed coursework beyond a Master s degree. By design, the participants teach a variety of content including English (18.6%), Mathematics (18.6%), Science (10.2%), Social Studies (11.9%), Art/Music (8.5%), Physical Education/Health (10.2%), Technical Education (3.4%), World Languages (6.8%), Business (3.4%), Family and Consumer Science (3.4%), or other content such as Gifted and Alternative Education classes (5.1%). A census sample of all teachers within the district who teach grades seven through twelve allowed for this variation.

79 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 68 The majority (76.3%) were married, with 20.3% identified as single, and 3.4% as divorced at the time of data collection. Sixty-one percent of the group had children, while 39% did not. These familial characteristics may influence time management skills due to outside obligations and were obtained during the first week of data collection. The participants background in time management showed that 66.1% had never read books or attended seminars on the subject. Quantitative Results Personal Creativity. Three instruments were used to gauge each teacher s personal characteristics pertaining to creativity: Gough s Creative Personality Scale, a Self-Rating of Creativity, and the Abbreviated Torrance Test for Adults. These three assessments were combined to identify a teacher s Personal Creativity score. The procedures were based on the work of Zampetakis, et al. (2010) and comparisons were drawn with these results when applicable. Creativity Personality Scale. Gough s Creative Personality Scale (CPS) was developed as a subscale of the Adjective Checklist developed in 1965 (Gough, 1979). The scale (Appendix D) is comprised of 30 adjectives, with 12 (e.g. confident, egotistical, and humorous) identified as negative and 18 (e.g. conservative, sincere, and conventional) as positive. As a group, a high percentage of participants rated themselves as being capable (91.6%), while a low percentage rated themselves as snobbish (1.7%), egotistical (3.4%), sexy (5.1%), unconventional (15.3%), and individualistic (20.3%), all positive creativity characteristics. When reviewing negative creativity characteristics, the participants rated themselves highly as honest (89.8%), well-mannered (83.1%), sincere (79.7%), and at low percentages as artificial (1.7%), having narrow interests (3.4%),

80 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 69 suspicious (6.8%), commonplace (10.2%), dissatisfied (10.2%), submissive (11.9%), and sincere (20.3%). Final summation scores, or the Creative Personality Scale (CPS), can range from - 12 to 18, with higher scores indicative of greater levels of creativity in the individual. The current study yielded scores from -6 to 11 (α = 0.75). The overall mean CPS for this study was 3.49 (SD = 4.17), which was higher than Zampetakis results (M = 3.18, SD = 2.99). Males had higher overall CPS scores (M = 4.22, SD = 3.99) than females (M = 2.88, SD = 4.27). However, using a two-tailed t-test for independent samples, this difference was not statistically significant, t (57) = 1.24, p = Gough (1979), who found a significant difference in gender scores with males showing higher overall values, recommended separate reporting by gender. Self-Report of Creativity. The Self-Report of Creativity (SRC) (Appendix E) was used by Zampetakis, et al. (2010) and consisted of eight items based on the work of Zhou and George (2001) and a seven-point Likert scale. The report had two subscales: the Production of Creative Ideas and the Production of Useful Ideas. The mean of all eight questions provided the total Self-Rating Score. The Production of Creative Ideas subscale (α = 0.79) produced a mean of 5.41 (SD = 0.76) while the Production of Useful Ideas subscale (α = 0.87) had a mean of 5.23 (SD = 0.78). The overall Self-Rating of Creativity (α = 0.89) mean was 5.32 (SD = 0.72) with a range from 3.25 to All means correspond to the category Sometimes True on the seven-point Likert scale used for this assessment. The overall mean was the same as that in Zampetakis group but with a higher standard deviation (2010). Subscale values were not reported in the 2010 results and could not be compared.

81 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 70 A significant number of teachers (62.7%) indicated a response of Usually True or Always True to the statement, I develop adequate plans and schedules for the implementation of new ideas. This statement referred to planning, a common characteristic for creativity and time management alike. The remaining statements yielded percentages above 76% in the combined responses of Sometimes True, Usually True, or Always True. Abbreviated Torrance Test of Creativity. The Abbreviated Torrance Test of Creativity (ATTA) provided the researcher with a measurement of creativity that was not self-reported, but was task oriented. The mean values for the participant group appear in Table 3, along with the norm-referenced means and standard deviations (Goff & Torrance, 2002) for comparison. The study group scored higher than the national mean in Originality (production of new or unique ideas) and Elaboration (embellish ideas with detail) and lower in both Fluency (quantity of ideas) and Flexibility (process information in different ways with same stimulus) (Goff & Torrance, 2002). The CI for the participant group of was greater with the norm-referenced mean of This mean placed the overall group in the above average creativity category as identified by the ATTA scoring manual (Goff & Torrance, 2002).

82 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 71 Mean subscales and Creativity Index for ATTA (n=59) Minimum Maximum Sample mean Sample std. deviation Norm mean Norm std. dev. Fluency Originality Elaboration Flexibility Creativity Index (CI) Table 3 ATTA results Personal Creativity Summative Value. The overall mean for the participant group was (SD = 2.13) with a range from to Teachers of Physical Education/Health (n = 3) had the highest value while Family and Consumer Science (n = 2) had the lowest.

83 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 72 Personal creativity by subject area Subject Mean N Standard deviation English Mathematics Science Social Studies Art/Music Physical Education/Health Technical Education World Languages Business FACS Other Total Table 4 Personal creativity by subject Likelihood to Foster Creativity. Three surveys were used to determine the likelihood a teacher fosters student creativity within his or her classroom. The three surveys, Instructional Practices Questionnaire I, Epistemological Beliefs of Teaching and Learning, and the Instructional Practices Questionnaire II, were all from the work of Hong and associates (2009). Instructional Practices Questionnaire I. This survey measured the likelihood a teacher offered certain opportunities in his or her classroom in five distinct areas. The highest level of opportunity was in Task Commitment (α = 0.73), with a mean of 2.77 (SD = 0.50), with Transfer (α = 0.68) as the next highest sub-scale with a mean of 2.74 (SD = 0.51), and Multiple Perspectives in Problem-Solving (α = 0.72) next with a mean

84 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 73 of 2.64 (SD = 0.51). The lowest two sub-scales were Collaboration (α = 0.84), with a mean of 2.53 (SD = 0.65), and Creative Skill Use (α = 0.90), with a mean of 2.48 (SD = 0.49). All five means were lower than the results reported in the original study (Hong, et al., 2009). The overall mean for the participant group (n = 59) was (SD= 2.23) with a range from 8.64 to Three participants asked the researcher for copies of this questionnaire after completion and indicated that this survey provided them with ideas for classroom activities. In the area of Task Commitment, only 1.7% of respondents reported that they almost never give students opportunities to do their best to complete tasks, and no respondents said they never allow students to set high standards for their tasks and do their best to complete them. Certain Transfer, or application, opportunities were provided to students often or almost always, such as relating classroom learning to real life, (72.9%) and applying their knowledge and skills in different or unfamiliar situations, (64.4%). Over half of teachers provided opportunities for students to solve problems with more than one right answer, (62.7%) or express their opinions and views freely, (89.8%) often or almost always. However, high percentages admitted to almost never or only sometimes allowing students to play various roles while working in groups, (76.2%) and think of various approaches to view and solve problems, (64.5%). These results were in the Multiple Perspectives of Problem Solving category. Within the construct of Collaboration, 11.9% almost never allowed students to work on groups, 20.3% almost never planned activities in which students, establish goals to accomplish team projects, and 22.0% almost never, adopt[ed] and implement team members ideas for group projects. The lowest subscale, Creative Skill Use,

85 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 74 showed several areas in which teachers almost never provided student opportunities the chance to practice specific creative skills, such as developing open-ended questions (23.7%), proposing ideas about groups or classroom activities (16.9%), experimenting with different approaches (16.9%), pursuing their interests (25.4%), using their imagination (10.2%), or choosing class activities (27.1%). Epistemological Beliefs in Teaching and Learning. The mean Nature of Learning (α = 0.56) score was 2.20 (SD = 0.22). These items deal with student effort over time. High percentages of teachers disagreed or strongly disagreed with several statements: Almost all the information students can understand from a textbook, they will get during the first reading, (98.3%), It is better to give up on a task if you don t have the ability to do it, (98.3%), It s a waste of time for students to work on problems that have no possibility of coming out with a clear cut answer, (94.9%), If teachers would stick more to facts and do less theorizing, students could get more out of schooling, (93.2%), If something can be learned by students, it will be learned immediately, (91.5%), and If I provide many different sides of a theory or a concept to students, it will just confuse them (89.8%). Participants agreed or strongly agreed with, I like to present information to students in a straightforward fashion without my students having to read between the lines, (79.7%). The mean Nature of Knowledge sub-scale (α = 0.70) was lower at 1.98 (SD = 0.34). These items referred to student intelligence. The majority of teachers disagreed or strongly disagreed with many of these items, as well, including, If students can t understand something quickly, it usually means they will never understand it, (100%), No amount of hard work can make up for a lack of intelligence, (96.6%), Smart

86 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 75 people don t have to work very hard to be successful, (93.2%), Intelligence cannot be changed, (91.5%), and Smart students don t have to study very hard to get good grades, (79.6%). People are born with different levels of intelligence was strongly agreed or agreed with 89.8% of the time. The overall summative value for The Epistemological Beliefs in Teaching and Learning scale (α = 0.76) had a mean of 4.18 (SD = 0.51) and a range from 3.16 to Instructional Practices Questionnaire II. This questionnaire (Appendix H) measured teachers instructional practices as demonstrated in tasks and materials provided for students by the instructor (Hong, et al., 2009). Instructional goals of the teacher were the primary focus, with two subscales in Student Performance and Student Learning, and a summative value for a combined score. Items relating to Student Performance (α = 0.79) (assessments, purpose of tasks, comparisons to others) had a mean of 2.31 (SD = 0.44). None of the participants felt the statement, I focus on students test performance because good test scores indicate that I taught well, or that students test results were a direct reflection of their teaching, but 81.4% of respondents assign homework at least some of the time to help increase test performance. Grading based primarily on test scores was ranked Not True at All or Seldom True by 81.4% of teachers. Twenty percent of teachers did not agree at all that it was important that their students perform better than those taught by other instructors. Almost half of participants (45.8%) never told students how other students in the class achieved by revealing averages and ranges of scores. The items related to Student Learning (α = 0.85) (level of challenge, effort and persistence, application of knowledge) scored a mean of 3.38 (SD = 0.32). High

87 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 76 percentages of teachers responded to statements about the level of challenge they provide students, indicating True or Somewhat True for selecting challenging materials (98.3%), encouraging hard work (100%), creating challenging courses (94.9%), and recognizing effort and persistence (84.7%). Feedback for learning or encouraging checks for accuracy are not provided by 8.5% of participants. Application examples were provided for students and they were encouraged to plan before beginning a task by 94.9% of respondents at least some of the time. All teachers (100%) indicated they helped students experience success in order to increase confidence at least some of the time. Both sub-scales were higher than those reported by Hong and associates (2009). The summative score (α = 0.86) had a mean of 5.69 (SD = 0.63) and a range from 4.23 to Likelihood to Foster Creativity Summative Value. The overall mean (n = 59) for the participant group was (SD = 1.52) with a range from to Teachers of Technical Education (n = 2) had the highest value while Business teachers (n = 2) had the lowest.

88 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 77 Fostering creativity by subject area Subject Mean N Std. Deviation English Mathematics Science Social Studies Art/Music Physical Education/Health Technical Education World Languages Business FACS Other Total Table 5 Fostering creativity by subject Time Management. Time management skills were assessed by two surveys: the Time Management Behavior Scale (Macan, 1990) and the Time Management Scale (Zampetakis, et al., 2010). Each survey had several subscales and a final value. These were combined to create a summative score for time management. Time Management Behavior Scale. Four subscales were calculated, as well as a final value for this survey. The first section, Setting Goals and Priorities (α = 0.88), had a mean score of 3.77 (SD = 0.69) and the second section, Mechanics of Time Management (α = 0.81), had a mean value of 3.33 (SD = 0.73). In the third section, Preference for Organization (α = 0.79), the mean was higher at 4.01 (SD = 0.64) while the last subsection, Perceived Control of Time (α = 0.16), had the lowest mean of 3.17

89 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 78 (SD = 0.45). The overall sample (n = 59) had a summative score (α = 0.87) of (SD = 1.70) with a range from to Macan (1990) reported higher scores in females than males. T-tests for independent samples (two-tailed tests) were completed for all four sub-scales, as well as the summative value. Females had a significantly higher summative Time Management Behavior Scale score (M = 14.72, SD = 1.63) than males (M = 13.78, SD = 1.67), t (57) = -2.18, p = One area of four showed a significant difference between gender groups. The female mean of 3.65 (SD = 0.65) was significantly higher, t (57) -4.07, p = 0.00, than the male group with a mean of 2.96 (SD= 0.64) in the Mechanics of Time Management sub-section. Over three-fourths of respondents chose Frequently True or Very Often True in the area of Setting Goals and Priorities on the following areas: breaking down difficult tasks into more manageable ones (84.7%), completing higher priority tasks first (81.4%), searching for ways to increase efficiency (79.6%), and keeping long-term objectives in mind during short term planning (76.3%). Reviewing goals to determine if revisions are necessary described the work habits (44%) and reviewing daily activities for wasted time (40.7%) occurs only occasionally or seldom. Several areas in the Mechanics of Time section show substantial responses in the Seldom True or Occasionally True categories: keep a daily activity log (67.8%), carry an appointment book (44.1%), carry a notebook to jot down ideas (40.6%), use in and out baskets for paperwork (39%), and schedule activities at least a week in advance (30.5%). Written notes to remind teachers of what needed to be accomplished were used by 79.6% of respondents, and 66.1%

90 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 79 brought along something to work on if they would experience time waiting at least on a frequent basis. Teachers chose a preference for organization through several responses. Almost 90% (89.8%) of respondents felt that time spent scheduling and organizing the workday is only seldom or occasionally time wasted. Those that use a to do list did not forget about the list at the end of the day (83.1%) and found things more easily when their workspace was organized (71.1%). Twenty-five percent of respondents at least frequently underestimated time for task accomplishment, while 18.7% spent time on unimportant tasks. Procrastinating on undesirable tasks was at least occasionally a problem for 83.1% of participants. Time Management Scale. This scale was created by Zampetakis, et al. (2010) by combining questions from the work of Trueman and Hartley (1996), as well as items from the Claessans scale (2004). The first section, Daily Planning (α = 0.82), had a mean score of 3.77 (SD = 0.71). The second section, Confidence in Long-Term Planning (α = 0.66), had a mean score of 3.38 (SD = 0.41), which was the lowest sub-scale; it had the smallest variability in scores. The final subsection, Perceived Control of Time (α = 0.85), had a mean of 3.58 (SD = 0.64). The overall summative value (α = 0.84) was (SD = 1.34) with a range from 7.91 to In comparison to Zampetakis results (2010), this study produced higher results in Daily Planning, but lower results in Long- Term Planning and Perceived Control of Time. In the realm of daily planning, over half of respondents spent time planning on a daily basis (89.8%), planned each day before it began (78%), made a schedule of daily activities (69.5%) and wrote a list of things to do each day (64.4%) at least frequently.

91 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 80 However, 39% infrequently or never wrote a set of goals for each day. Long-term planning showed that 83% of teachers clearly knew what they want to accomplish weekly and 74.6% set and keep priorities always or frequently. Saying no to others interfered with planning (76.2%) and most respondents (83.1%) were still working on planning the night before a lesson at least some of the time. All participants felt that there was room for improvement in their time management at least some of the time. When it comes to control over time, 54.3% felt in control, 76.3% felt their work was in control, and 88.1% were confident that their work was completed on time at least frequently. Over 74% (74.3%) of teachers felt that others took them away from their tasks at least some of the time. Time Management Summative Score. The overall mean (n = 59) for the participant group was (SD = 1.797) with a range of Teachers of World Language (n = 4) had the highest value while Business teachers (n = 2) had the lowest.

92 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 81 Time management by subject area Subject Mean N Std. deviation English Mathematics Science Social Studies Art/Music Physical Education/Health Technical Education World Languages Business FACS Other Total Table 6 Time management by subject Correlations. The primary quantitative focus of the study was to determine the level of correlation in teachers between the following variables: time management skills and personal creativity time management skills and likelihood to foster student creativity personal creativity and likelihood to foster student creativity Summative values were used to generate scatter plots that provided a visual of the possible correlations between the values. Sub-scales were also reviewed to identify correlations for each set of variables. This allowed the researcher to look at factors within each variable, as well as the overall scores, to determine potential areas of correlation. These were used to determine the extent to which variables may be related, but do not indicate a cause and effect relationship (Creswell, 2008). IBM s SPSS, Version 19 was used for all calculations. Determinations of level of correlations were

93 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 82 based on the recommendations of Ravid (pg. 120, 2011) in which the values in Table 7 are used. Correlation, r Interpretation.00 to.20 Negligible.20 to.40 Low.40 to.60 Moderate.60 to.80 High.80 to 1.00 Substantial Table 7 Correlational analysis Time Management and Personal Creativity. Hypotheses. H o : There is no significant correlation between time management and personal creativity in secondary teachers. H a : There is a significant correlation between time management and personal creativity in secondary teachers. Correlations. A scatter plot (Figure 4) of the two summative variables showed visual evidence of a linearity; therefore a test of correlation was appropriate for these overarching variables (Ravid, 2011). The independent variable, time management, showed a low positive correlation with the dependent variable, personal creativity, r(57) = 0.37, p < 0.01.

94 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 83 Figure 4 Time Management vs. Personal Creativity Further in-depth review of the subscales for the accompanying instruments showed additional evidence of low to moderate correlation in several areas. Using 2- tailed tests and Person s correlation coefficient r, several subscales showed positive correlations. This indicated that higher scores in time management subscales would relate to higher personal creativity subscales. For each subscale, the accompanying instrument was listed and the values for r are listed in Table 8. Setting Goals and Priorities (TMBS) demonstrated a low correlation with the Production of Creative Ideas (SRC), r(57) = 0.39, p < 0.01, a moderate correlation with the Production of Useful Ideas (SRC), r(57) = 0.47, p < 0.01, and a moderate correlation with the overall Self-Report of Creativity, r(57) = 0.46, p < Daily Planning (TMS), an element required of all teachers, showed a low correlation with the Production of Creative Ideas (SRC), r(57) = 0.31, p < 0.05, Originality (ATTA), r(57) = 0.34, p < 0.01, and Elaboration (ATTA), r(57) = 0.32, p < Long-Term Planning (TMS) indicated a

95 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 84 low correlation with the Creative Personality Scale (CPS), r(57) = 0.31, p < 0.05, and a moderate correlation with the Production of Creative Ideas (SRC), r(57) = 0.42, p < 0.01, the Production of Useful Ideas (SRC), r = 0.50, p < 0.01, and the overall Self-Report of Creativity, r = 0.50, p < The Perceived Control of Time (TMS), a valuable portion of autonomy, also showed low correlations with personal creativity. Specifically, this subscale correlated with the Creative Personality Scale (CPS), r(57) = 0.31, p < 0.05, the Production of Creative Ideas (SRC), r(57) = 0.35, p < 0.01, the Production of Useful Ideas (SRC), r(57) = 0.34, p < 0.01, and the overall Self-Report of Creativity, r(57) = 0.37, p < 0.01.

96 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 85 Time management vs. personal creativity subscales (Pearson coefficient r, n = 59) Creative Personality Scale Production of creative ideas Production of useful ideas Self-report of creativity Fluency Originality Elaboration Flexibility Creativity Index Setting goals and priorities **.47 **.46 ** Mechanics of time management Preference for organization Perceived control of time Time Management Behavior Scale **.34 **.37 ** Daily planning * * **.32 * Long-term planning.31 *.42 **.50 **.50 ** Perceived control of time.31 *.35 **.34 **.37 ** Time Management Scale.35 **.46 **.44 **.48 ** *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Table 8 Time management vs. personal creativity subscales

97 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 86 Time Management and Fostering Creativity. Hypotheses. H o : There is no significant correlation between time management and the likelihood to foster student creativity in secondary teachers. H a : There is a significant correlation between time management and the likelihood to foster student creativity in secondary teachers. Correlations. A scatter plot (Figure 5) of the two summative variables showed visual evidence of linearity, therefore a test of correlation was appropriate for these overarching variables. The independent variable, time management, showed a low correlation with the dependent variable, fostering creativity, r(57) = 0.34, p < Figure 6 Figure 5 Time management vs. fostering creativity

98 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 87 Continued investigation into the subscales related to these variables revealed further areas that demonstrate correlation. Setting Goals and Priorities (TMBS) had a low positive correlation with Multiple Perspectives in Problem-Solving (IPQ1), r(57) = 0.28, p < 0.05, Transfer (IPQ1), r(57) = 0.37, p < 0.01, Task Commitment (IPQ1), r(57) = 0.31, p < 0.05, Creative Skill Use (IPQ1), r(57) = 0.29, p < 0.05, Collaboration (IPQ1), r(57) = 0.28, p < 0.05, and Performance Goals (IPQ2), r(57) = 0.39, p < 0.01, and a moderate positive correlation with Learning Goals (IPQ2), r(57) = 0.57, p < Understanding the Mechanics of Time Management correlated low and positive with Multiple Perspectives in Problem-Solving (IPQ1), r(57) = 0.31, p < 0.05, Task Commitment (IPQ1), r(57) = 0.37, p < 0.01, Creative Skill Use (IPQ1), r(57) = 0.36, p < 0.01, and moderately positive with Transfer (IPQ1), r(57) = 0.46, p < 0.01 and Learning Goals (IPQ2), r(57) = 0.46, p < There was a low negative correlation between Understanding the Mechanics of Time Management and the Nature of Knowledge (EBTL), r(57) = -0.35, p < The Preference for Organization (TMBS) correlated low, but negative, with the Nature of Knowledge (EBTL), r(57) = -0.31, p < 0.05, and low, but positive with Learning Goals, r(57) = 0.32, p < Having a Perceived Control of Time showed a low, negative correlation with Collaboration (IPQ1), r(57) = -0.27, p < Using a different assessment, the Perceived Control of Time (TMS) showed a low, positive correlation with Transfer (IPQ1), r(57) = 0.27, p < 0.05, Task Commitment (IPQ1), r(57) = 0.31, p < 0.05, Collaboration (IPQ1), r(57) = 0.28, p < 0.05, and Learning Goals and a low, negative correlation with the Nature of Knowledge (EBTL), r(57) = -0.37, p < 0.01.

99 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 88 Planning, a common requirement for all teachers, showed relationships with areas related to fostering creativity. Daily Planning (TMS) correlated moderately positive with Learning Goals (IPQ2), r(57) = 0.42, p < Long-Term Planning (TMS) had low, positive correlations with Multiple Perspectives in Problem-Solving (IPQ1), r(57) = 0.32, p <0.05, Task Commitment (IPQ1), r(57) = 0.34, p < 0.01, Creative Skill Use (IPQ1), r(57) = 0.27, p < 0.05, and a low, negative correlation with the Nature of Knowledge (EBTL), r(57) = -0.34, p <0.01. Stronger values relating Long-Term Planning (TMS) to fostering creativity showed moderate, positive correlations with Transfer (IPQ1), r(57) = 0.41, p < 0.01, Collaboration (IPQ1), r(57) = 0.41, p < 0.01, and Learning Goals (IPQ2), r(57) = 0.57, p < 0.01.

100 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 89 Multiple perspectives Time management vs. fostering creativity subscales (Pearson coefficient r, n =59) Transfer Task commitment Creative skill use Collaboration Nature of knowledge Nature of learning Learning goals Performance goals Setting goals and priorities.28 *.37 **.31 *.29 *.28 * **.39 ** Mechanics of time managemen t.31 *.46 **.37 **.36 ** ** **.08 Preference for organization * * *.20 Perceived control of time (TMBS) * Daily planning **.11 Long-term planning.32 *.41 **.34 **.27 *.41 ** -.34 ** **.12 Perceived control of time (TMS) *.31 * * -.37 ** ** -.03 *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Table 9 Time management vs. fostering creativity subscales

101 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 90 Personal Creativity and Fostering Creativity. Hypotheses. H o : There is no significant correlation between personal creativity and fostering creativity in secondary teaching. H a : There is a significant correlation between personal creativity and fostering creativity in secondary teaching. Correlations. A scatter plot (Figure 6) of the two summative variables did not show significant visual evidence of a linear relationship, therefore a test of correlation was not appropriate for these overarching variables (Ravid, 2011), and the null hypothesis held. This indicated a weak, if any, relationship between personal creativity and fostering student creativity in secondary teaching. Figure 6 Personal creativity vs. fostering creativity Figure 6: Personal Creativity vs. Fostering Creativity

102 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 91 Continued review of the sub-scales related to personal creativity and the likelihood to foster creativity in the classroom showed several areas of low to moderate correlation. The Creative Personality Scale (CPS), Self-Report of Creativity (SRC) and the Abbreviated Torrance Test of Creativity (ATTA) all measured the teacher s individual creativity. The Instructional Practices Questionnaire I (IPQ1) and the Instructional Practices Questionnaire II (IPQ2) measured the opportunities teacher provided for their students in the classroom. The Epistemological Beliefs in Teaching and Learning scale (EBTL) measured the perspectives of the teacher related to creativity skills in students. Gough s Creative Personality Scale (CPS) revealed a low positive correlation with Multiple Perspectives in Problem-Solving (IPQ1), r(57) = 0.35, p < 0.01, and Collaboration (IPQ1), r(57) = 0.28, p < The Production of Useful Ideas (SRC) showed a low positive correlation with Multiple Perspectives in Problem-Solving (IPQ1), r = 0.38, p < 0.01, Task Commitment, r(57) = 0.26, p < 0.05, and Learning Goals (IPQ2), r(57) = 0.36, p < 0.01, and a moderate positive correlation with Collaboration (IPQ1), r(57) = 0.42, p < The Production of Creative Ideas had a low positive correlation with Multiple Perspectives in Problem-Solving (IPQ1), r(57) = 0.35, p < 0.01, Collaboration (IPQ1), r(57) = 0.37, p < 0.01, and Learning Goals (IPQ2), r(57) = 0.35, p < 0.01 and a low negative correlation with the Nature of Learning (EBTL), r(57) = -0.30, p < Fluency (ATTA), the ability to produce a quantity of related ideas, had a low negative correlation with Transfer skills (IPQ1), the capacity to apply learning to different situations, r(57) = -0.28, p < Flexibility (ATTA), the capability to process

103 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 92 information in different ways, had a low positive correlation with Multiple Perspectives in Problem-Solving (IPQ1), r(57) = 0.32, p < 0.05, Task Commitment (IPQ1), r(57) = 0.26, p < 0.05, and Collaboration (IPQ1), r(57) = 0.26, p < Personal creativity vs. fostering creativity subscales (Pearson coefficient r, n = 59) Multiple perspectives in problem solving Transfer Task commitment Creative skill use Collaboration Nature of knowledge Nature of learning Learning goals Performance goals Creative Personality Scale Production of useful ideas Production of creative ideas.35 ** * ** * ** ** ** ** *.35 **.10 Fluency * Originality Elaboration Flexibility.32 * * * *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Table 10 Personal creativity vs. fostering creativity subscales

104 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 93 Qualitative Findings Participants. The 59 initial participants were ranked in each of the summative values for personal creativity, the likelihood to foster creativity, and time management. Four teachers from the original participant group, who were in the top quartiles in personal creativity and time management, were invited to participate in follow-up interviews. One of the four teachers chosen was in the bottom quartile for fostering creativity, while the other three were in the top quartile in this area. She was invited due to her position as a physical education teacher to examine if position is important in fostering creativity. The participants include three females and one male with varied experience, positions, and grade levels. Time Management. Four factors developed through the coding process, which were essential to the strong time management skills as demonstrated by these teachers: the use of tools, goal setting, collaboration, and professionalism. Barriers to time management included lack of prioritizing and a need to plan more comprehensibly. Assistance in lesson planning, well-defined goals and expectations, and increased time for collaboration and reflection were recommendations for school leaders in the area of time management. Use of Tools. All four participants identified critical tools that they use to organize and manage their time while teaching and in the general area of management. These strong managers of time used calendars, both paper and electronic, sticky notes, planner books, lists, and highlighters to keep track of upcoming deadlines and tasks. Checklists and multiple sets of notes helped to ensure all tasks are completed on time.

105 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 94 Karen, a physical education teacher, said, I live and die by the clock. When asked about methods she used to manage her time, Julie, a music teacher, said: My cell phone. I have the calendar on there. I make lists. I use sticky notes. On my Mac[intosh] I have sticky notes [electronic]. I am constantly making notes to myself, that way I make sure I get the things done that need to be. My notes are everywhere. I have multiple sets of notes. Goal Setting. All teachers are required to complete lesson planning in some format. At the research setting, all lesson planning occurs using the Learning Focused School (Thompson, et al., 2009), template with essential questions, specific strategies, vocabulary, and assessments. The four interview participants spoke of goal setting as being critical for successful time management in both lesson planning and task accomplishment. Lisa said: As a teacher, I feel like time management helps you to set a goal and to reach that goal in a timely manner. I use my experience with teaching different concepts to figure out how long it should take to do each activity. I have the bigger picture, and I break it into chunks depending on how much I can get done in one day. Karen felt that, You have to manage every single lesson by time or you would be completely lost. All four teachers plan lesson weeks ahead, prioritize content by importance, and still are able to be flexible with time to meet student needs.

106 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 95 Shawn, a high school science teacher, said: In the long term, you have to worry about getting all your curriculum in and in the short term, you have to accomplish your goal for that period. Time management is important in terms of letting the small term fit into the long term. I am sort of conceptual in terms of what needs to be done in a weekly basis. Then I organize it and catch up if I can in different days in the week. I break [the content] down to weekly goals. Collaboration. Working with colleagues was identified as both a positive and negative factor in time management. Karen felt that she was hindered by collaboration, as she must always plan lessons in conjunction with another teacher. Planning takes increased time for her due to the nature of this relationship that can be inefficient. However, Shawn felt a need for collaboration with his peers to accomplish tasks. Shawn especially relied on others to accomplish administrative tasks and expressed that, We ve all found our own little niche of what we take care of for everyone. I think departmentally, we handle it [paperwork] together. His department divides tasks for productivity and reminds one another of important deadlines. Professionalism. Experience in teaching and knowledge of content were identified as key factors in time management and goal setting. The more seasoned professionals spoke of experience with teaching, and Karen said that she used more time to plan when I was teaching [a new course]. Julie, who begins with a new rotation of students every 30 days, adjusts her plans frequently and can manage her time better as she repeats activities in the classroom. Karen thinks about it [time management] all the time. She also does not socialize with others during the workday and often works

107 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 96 through her lunch, which allows her to accomplish tasks during the workday. Karen stated, Every minute that I was not teaching or had kids with me, I was planning I was working on it so I wasn t out socializing in the teacher s lounge. An emphasis on preparation before lessons was also discussed. The teachers felt that practicing new skills, such as technology applications, before the lesson minimizes wasted time for the students. Areas for Improvement. A focus on prioritization of tasks was identified as an area of improvement for these skilled time managers. All four teachers indicated that they became sidetracked at times, can feel overloaded, and just can t say no. They multi-task and find that one project often leads to another. Lisa said that she sometimes needs to go back and refocus [her] energy. However, Karen found that she was less organized when she had extra time. I am much better when I m at work keeping things organized at home. When I m home for the summer, I m not as good at keeping things organized, she said. Shawn indicated that he struggled with fitting his lessons into the required framework and time periods. Lessons often take longer than he expected and flexibility of time would benefit his students. Even though all four teachers used the same planning format and had similar time structures, he was the only participant that indicated this as an area for improvement. Recommendations for Leaders. The participants were asked, What could the administration at the building level or in the district do to help you with time management? Overall, the participants were pleased with the level of support they received in this area. The teachers desired additional time for collaboration with peers,

108 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 97 reflecting on prior lessons, and unstructured activities. Reminder s, specific goals and expectations, and exact deadlines all helped the participants with time management and direction. The teachers did not feel extra planning time was needed on a daily basis. Karen stated, If someone were to say, Could you use more time for planning? I have enough time. If you re organized, you have enough time. She did say that she needed additional planning time when she taught in the classroom rather than the gymnasium only due to the new nature of the content for her. Julie felt that additional time was needed during in-service days to allow for focus. Technology issues became time wasters when only allotted a short time for curriculum development. Shawn said that more flexibility in lesson planning structure would help him with his overall time management. Creativity. Coding the interview transcripts revealed four themes in the area of creativity: making connections, offering choice, teacher perspectives and student factors. Inhibitors to creativity were categorized into factors related to teachers and students. Suggestions for school leaders were also investigated in the process and included providing resources, time for collaboration, and developing a creative school culture. Connections. The interviewed teachers focused on the connections that they make with and for students. Creativity was viewed as necessary to engage students in the learning process and connect the content to previous experiences. Lisa stated, I feel like the more creative you are, the more links and connections they [the students] make in their brain and there is a more meaningful context for them to learn. Karen felt that fostering creativity teaches students to think. That s part of our job to help them be more creative and to teach them to think for themselves more. I think that has a lot to

109 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 98 do with creativity. It s very important. As a physical education teacher, Karen used creativity to help students work through conflict: For phys[ical] ed[ucation], we spend a lot of time working on skills and practicing skills, but we can also use that time to help kids learn how to be better citizens and human beings to each other. There s a lot of issues that come up, and I ve seen some kids work well with other kids and then you have to teach that. That s part of being creative. Helping them think for themselves. What would be a better way? Julie used creativity to reach all students: There s always those couple of kids that say, I m not creative enough. I can t compose this. I don t know how to do this. It s always trying to get those kids energized and excited about the activity. They end up finding that they actually are [creative.] I find it s my athletes so that s why I started bringing the basketballs in. I try to get an angle from every student s interests brought into the room. Shawn looks for creative ways to make connections for students in the area of chemistry: Today, we did structures with balloons. That can get, at least, the fundamental part of the concept to the students. Especially with Keystone exams coming up.being able to relate a problem to something they ve already seen, like balloon animals being able to relate it to something real-life is important. I try to come up with as many things like that when I can.

110 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 99 Offering Choice. Student choice in the classroom is critical in fostering student creativity (Flowerday, 2000). The four teachers spoke of the creative activities they provide for their students incorporating technology, writing, composition, visual expression, varied mediums, and rhythm. Students are often given a variety of choices in the final assessment used to determine mastery of content. Shawn said, I try to create choices where they can pick whatever they want to do.a lot of times in those choices they come with a creative way to present something. During the science fair, choice was critical but structured to help the students along the way: They have the option of doing any project they want. I have them create a list of interests and then they come up with a topic idea for each interest. From there, they narrow down what they want to do. I sort of direct them into making decisions. (Shawn) Julie offered her students choice in her assignments, as well. They are either working together or by themselves. They can use each other s creativity to create something. Lisa allowed for flexibility in the final product: I try to give them examples and let them take it from there. I try to encourage them to write about things that interest them when they are writing stories so they actually care about it. I try to put things in a context that is real to them. One of the things they do is a blog. They have to use their five senses to describe their trip to a Spanish-speaking country. It gets them thinking about real-life experiences. Rubrics were mentioned by several of the teachers to help guide students in creative endeavors and provide some semblance of structure. However, all four teachers were

111 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 100 open to students creative suggestions as long as they fulfill the basic requirements of the assignment. Teacher Perspectives. All four teachers felt that creativity in the classroom was needed for student engagement. Flexibility was identified as a critical element for successful teaching and student success. Karen felt both characteristics are needed, not just for the students, but for the instructor, as well: Flexibility is one thing, but you have to be creative. Each year you get a new group of kids and you have no idea how they are going to respond to different activities. You have to be creative, as well as flexible. Not just for them, but for yourself. If I feel like I m starting to get into a rut, that s when I have to start changing things. Julie stated, If you re creative in your own way, the creativity will come out and the lessons will be more engaging. The teachers also discussed using others ideas, either peer lessons or ideas found online, as a springboard for their own designs. However, they all agreed that others concepts must be adapted in creative ways to meet their own students needs. Student Factors. One teacher felt that some students enter into the classroom already more creative than others due to both nature and nurture. Karen said, Some kids just have that; they are born being more creative. Sometimes, I think, at home that s cultivated a little bit more. That s part of our job to help them be more creative. Shawn understood the importance of creativity for his students future: It s [creativity] an important thing for students because there aren t too many jobs unless you re working at [a fast food restaurant] where you

112 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 101 don t have to be creative. My wife is an accountant and talks about work. In accounting, she needs to be creative. We think of the accountant as the person who just crunches the numbers, not a creative job. She actually does a lot of creative things in her job. Creativity is an important skill for all students. Creativity Inhibitors. The participants were asked, What challenges do you experience as a teacher in the area of creativity? The students themselves were viewed as potential inhibitors, especially at the middle school level. Peer pressure and the social nature of these students cause fear that others may criticize their creations or ideas. Lisa felt the students could be very literal at this age. Sometimes getting them to higher-level thinking and taking it one-step further is like pulling teeth, she said. Teacher factors can be inhibitors, as well. Karen restated the difficulties she had due to the partner aspect of her position. She must always collaborate with another, which can be a limiting factor. Available materials and equipment can limit creativity in lesson planning if desired items are not available. Shawn felt that the pressure of standardized testing causes an emphasis on drill and practice activities, which is not a very creative method of instruction. Recommendations for Leaders. The participants identified three ways school administration can encourage creativity. While all four felt that they have the resources they need, they did discuss budgetary constraints as a problem. Technology was readily available, but training may help in sparking new ideas for using these assets. School leaders need to nurture a culture for creativity. Events that highlight student projects and creative ideas, as well as portfolio development, could add to the creative culture of a

113 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 102 school. Karen discussed the possibility of larger classes as a problem with creativity. She felt that the administration could help teachers be more creative and encourage student creativity by limiting class sizes. Shawn focused on collaboration with others as a need. He is the only teacher of his subject in the district and felt he would benefit from the opportunities to meet with other professionals face-to-face. Discussion. By purposefully selecting four teachers who are creative and strong time managers, the interview data focused on the successful characteristics of only such teachers. The interview questions were designed to answer, How are some teachers highly creative, while demonstrating effective time management, within a standardsbased environment? All the teachers shared common time management techniques, beliefs about creativity, and a drive to be true professionals; always striving for the best outcomes for their students. Successful time management permits these instructors to focus on creative lessons and activities for the classroom. The teachers all used tools to manage time, often incorporating technology and using multiple systems to ensure goals were met. Specific, yet flexible, goals were used to plan lessons and units, meeting curriculum and standards-aligned benchmarks. All four teachers collaborated with colleagues on administrative tasks, lesson design, and curriculum writing. Online tools enabled additional collaboration with others across the world through lesson study and as a springboard for new ideas. All four teachers demonstrated a high degree of professionalism through a strong work ethic, focus on the tasks at hand, and a lack of socialization while focusing on the needs of their students. This drive minimizes wasted time and allows for increased creativity.

114 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 103 All four participants believed that creativity is important for the success of their students and their own professional growth. They identified connections as critical for student understanding and used creativity as a means of providing and encouraging those connections. Choice in assignments and activities was a repeated theme throughout the interviews, as the teachers allowed students to exercise their own creativity. A strong belief in the importance of creativity was present in all four teachers, as was an acceptance that creativity is critical for the future success of the students. Student factors, such as developmental age and family background, were viewed as important to the distinct creativity of unique students. Nonetheless, fostering creativity was understood to be an important part of the profession by those teachers. Those two factors are important to a teacher s success in the classroom. While there is evidence of correlation, this does not mean that time management and creativity are entwined or that a cause and effect relationship exists. Figure 7 shows a visualization of these factors as parts of the same circle, but distinct in nature. Time management is beneficial in allowing for creative thought, and creative solutions can improve time management. However, a teacher can be highly skilled in one area and not the other.

115 Creativity, Teaching, and Time 104 Time Management Use of Tools Setting Goals/Prioritize Collaboration Professionalism Creativity Supportive Administration Making Connections Offer Choice Teacher Perspectives Student Factors Resources Culture Time (for collaboration, reflection, deep thought) Specific Goals/Expectations Figure 7 Visualization of Theory The third segment of the circle indicates the importance of a supportive administration that values creativity and allows for successful time management. The interview participants identified administrative factors that improved teacher creativity and time management. Available resources and up-to-date technology enhanced both characteristics. Obtainability of resources was discussed as a factor for creativity in the classroom. The leadership can improve creativity by allowing for collaborative time on in-service days, throughout faculty meetings, or at other possible times throughout the school year. Reflection and time for concentrated thought, luxuries in most schools today, are critical for the creative process. The teachers stated that specific goals and expectations help time management, while reminders of upcoming deadlines are helpful.