Handbook of Laboratory Health and Safety Measures

Handbook of Laboratory Health and Safety Measures

This Handbook is dedicated to those who work in laboratories

SECOND EDITION Handbook of Laboratory Health and Safety Measures Edited by S.8. Pal Universitlit U/m Abteilung für Innere Medizin I 0-7900 Ulm (Oonau) Federal Republic of Germany Springer Science+Business Media, B.V.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Handbook of laboratory health and safety measures. - 2nd. ed. 1. Great Britain. Laboratories. Safety aspects I. Pal, S. B. (Srikantha Bhushan) 1928-1989 ISBN 978-90-481-4032-9 ISBN 978-94-015-7897-4 (ebook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-015-7897-4 Copyright 1990 by Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 1990 Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover 2nd edition 1990 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any me ans, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission from the publishers, Springer-Science+Business Media, B.Y. Laserprinter typeset by Martin Lister Publishing Services, Carnforth, Lancs. iv

Contents Preface List of Contributors Notes on Contributors vii ix xiii 1 Organizing the design of a safe laboratory J.R. Robb 1 2 Electrical safety measures and standards for laboratory facilities and equipment in hospitals and laboratories E.J. Slater and D. Whelpton 13 3 Design of mechanical equipment for laboratory staff and patient safety P.Bowker 41 4 Handling of laboratory animals - including non-human primates T. Pendry 51 5 Health care of laboratory personnel A.E. Wright 71 6 Responsibilities of the Director of Laboratory Medicine for health and safety issues in the laboratory LD.Montoya 91 7 Health and safety hazards and precautions in chemical laboratories G.E. Chivers 101 8 Safety measures to be taken in a haematologicallaboratory W.L. Ruf! 139 9 Health hazards in microbiology CH. Collins 159 v

HANDBOOK OF LABORATORY HEALTH AND SAFETY MEASURES 10 Safety measures in a ciinical chemistry laboratory l.h. Smith 189 11 Safety precautions in a clinical cytogenetics laboratory B. Czepulkowski 215 12 Safety measures to be taken in a botany laboratory M.P. Ramanujam 233 13 Safety measures to be taken in a zoology laboratory C.M. Chaturvedi 257 14 X-ray hazards - diagnostic and therapeutic R. G. Putney and N. W. Garvie 281 15 Precautions to be taken when working in an X-ray crystallography laboratory M.l. Mbzski and R.S. Osborn 315 16 Radiation protection in radionuclide investigations D.M. Taylor 327 17 Ultraviolet radiation safety B.L. Diffey 349 18 Hazards of using microwaves and radiofrequency radiation H.Moseley 397 19 Applications of ultrasound and their potential hazards A.R. Williams 427 20 Safety aspects of laboratory and ciinical nuciear magnetic resonance and magnetic fields MA. Foster 457 21 Laser safety A.L McKenzie 477 22 Precautions to be taken by field workers relating to specimens collected for final analysis in the laboratory G.E. Chivers and R. Toynton 497 23 Safety measures to be taken when moving to a new laboratory W.E. Green and D. Donaldson 527 Index 549 vi

Preface During the past two decades, many books, governmental reports and regulations on safety measures against chemieals, fire, microbiological and radioactive hazards in laboratories have been published from various countries. These topics have also been briefly discussed in books on laboratory planning and management. The application ofvarious scientific instruments based on different ionizing and non-ionizing radiations have brought new safety problems to the laboratory workers of today, irrespective of their scientific disciplines, be they medicine, natural or life sciences. However, no comprehensive laboratory handbook dealing with ail these hazards, some of which are recently introduced, had so far been available in a single volume. Therefore, it was thought worthwhile to publish this Handbook on safety and health measures for laboratories, with contributions from several experts on these subjects. As this second edition of the Handbook, like the first edition, is a multiauthor volume, some duplication in conte nt among chapters is unavoidable in order to maintain the context of a chapter as weil as make each chapter complete. An attempt has also been made to maintain the central theme, which is how to work in a laboratory with maximum possible environmental safety. Same chapters contained in the first volume have been updated for this second edition, and further chapters added, to make this volume even more comprehensive in dealing with ail possible hazards in the laboratory. I am indebted to Dr Peter L. Clarke of Kluwer Academic Publishers, who has undertaken the publication of this volume and Mrs "M.R. Lingard-Pal for acting as an honorary editorial assistant. S.B. Pal 1989 vii

List of Contributors P.Bowker Department of Orthopaedic Mechanics University of Salfard Salfard M5 4WT C.M. Cbaturvedi Department of Zoology Banaras Hindu University Varanasi 221005 India G.E. Cbivers Centre far Continuing Vocational Education University of Sheffield 65 Wilkinson Street Sheffield SlO 2GJ C.H. Collins TheAshes Hadlow Kent TNll OAS B. Czepulkowski Mediscript WillowEnd Hendon Wood Lane London NW7 4HS B.L. DitTey Regional Medical Physics Department Durharn Unit Dryburn Hospital Durharn DH1 5TW D. Donaldson Department of Pathology East Surrey Hospital Three Arch Road Redhill Surrey RH1 5RH M.A.Foster Department of Biomedical Physics and Bioengineering University of Aberdeen and Grampian Health Board Faresterhill Aberdeen AB9 2ZD N.W.Garvie Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine The London Hospital Whitechapel London E11BB ix

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS W.E. Green Oakwood Orestan Lane Effingham Leatherhead Surrey KT24 5SL A.L. McKenzie Regional Medical Physics Department Newcastle General Hospital Newcastle-upon-Tyne NE4 6BE MJ. Minski Reactor Centre Imperial College of Science Technology and Medicine Silwood Park Buckhurst Road Ascot Berks. SL5 7TE I.D. Montoya Affiliated Systems Carparation 1200 South Post Oak Boulevard Suite 540 Houston TX 77056-3104 USA H.Moseley Department of Clinical Physics and Bio-engineering West Scotland Health Boards 11 West Graham Street Glasgow G4 9LF R.S.Osborn Reactor Centre Imperial College of Science Technology and Medicine Silwood Park, Buckhurst Road Ascot Berks. SLS 7TE T. Pendry MRC Toxicology Unit Medical Research Council Laboratories Woodmansterne Road Carshalton Surrey SM5 4EF R.G. Putney Department of Medical Physics The London Hospital Whitechapel London EI leb M.P. Ramanujam Department of Botany Centre far Post-graduate Studies Pondicherry India 605 008 J. Robb The Douglass Group of Deloitte & Touche 1200 Travis Suite 2400 Houston TX 77002 USA x

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS W.L.RufT Clinical Laboratories Howard University Hospital 2041 Georgia Avenue NW Washington, DC 20060 USA E.J. Slater Medical Physics Department City Hospital Hucknall Road Nottingham NG5 1PB J. Smith 74 Cranham Close Headless Cross Redditch Worcs. B97 5AZ D.M. Taylor Kernforschungszentrum Karlsruhe Institut für Genetik und für Toxikologie von Spaltstoffen Postfach 3640 D-7500 Karlsruhe 1 Federal Republic of Germany R. Toynton Centre for Extension Studies Division of Contitming Education University of Sheffield 85 Wilkinson Street Sheffield SlO 2GJ D. Whelpton Medical Physics and Bioengineering Department Kings Mill Hospital Mansfield Road Sutton-in-Ashfield Nottinghamshire NG17 4JL A.R. Williams Department of Medical Biophysics University of Manchester Stopford Building OxfordRoad Manchester M13 9PT A.E. Wright The Old Smithy Warden Hexharn Northumberland NE48 3SB xi

Notes on Contributors Dr P. Bowker, CEng, MIMeehE, was born in Lancaster, EngIand, in 1946. He did his basic industrial training at AEI Ltd., and obtained his BSc in mechanical engineering (1967) and PhD in engineering metallurgy (1970) from the University of Salford. He has worked as Senior Research Associate in the Departments of Metallurgy and Engineering Materials, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, and as a Lecturer in the Department ofbio-medical Physics and Bio-Engineering, Universityof Aberdeen. His present appointment is as a Lecturer in the Department of Orthopaedic Mechanics, University of Salford. He has 16 publications to his credit, including chapters in 2 books. Dr (Mrs.) C. M. Chaturvedi was born in Jabalpur (MP), India in 1951. She graduated in 1969 and gained an MSc in Zoology in 1971 from Jabalpur University. After obtaining a PhD degree in Zoology (Avian Endocrinology/Reproduction Biology) in 1976 from Banaras Hindu University, (BHU) Varanasi, India, Dr Chaturvedi was appointed lecturer in the Department of Zoology, BHU in 1977, teaching graduate and post -graduate c1asses. Dr Chaturvedi's present appointment is as Reader in Zoology at the same university. She also joined the Department of Zoology and Physiology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, USA, as a visiting scientist, for collaborative research work in 1984 and 1987. Her major research area is the neuro-endocrine regulation of seasonal reproduction and metabolic conditions in wild and domestic birds, with special reference to the thyroid and adrenal glands. She has a number of publications in the field of Reproductive Endocrinology of birds. Dr G.E. Chivers was born in St Albans, England, in 1943. He was an undergraduate and research student at Birmingham University from 1962 to 1968 during wh ich time he qualified for a BSc (Hons) in chemistry and a PhD in organic chemistry. He spent one year as a Research Fellow in chemistry at Toronto University, Canada, and one year as Research Fellow in organic chemistry at Salford University. This was followed by an appointment as Lecturer in organic chemistry at Hatfield Polytechnic. Dr Chivers is at present appointed as Senior Tutor in the Centre for Extension Studies, Loughborough University of Technology, and is responsible for the organization of post-experience short courses on occupational heaith and safety, risk management and industrial pollution control, and for the University Diploma in Occupational Health and Safety Management. He organizes short courses on laboratory health and safety, trains internal staff in this area and acts as a consultant on health xiii

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS and safety in industrial and public sector laboratories. He has 4 publications on health and safety aspects in the laboratory, including chapters in 2 books. Dr C.H. Collins MBE, DSc, FRCPath, FIBiol, was born in Luton, England in 1919 and trained as a bacteriologist with the Public Health Laboratory Service. He became involved in microbiological hazard investigations in the 1950s as a result of work with aerosol production from liquid cultures of tubercle baciui and the design of microbiological safety cabinets. Dr Collins' recently retired from the Public Health Laboratory Service and now holds a Research Fellowship at King's College Hospital Medical and Dental School, London. He is also Visiting Research Fellow, Microbiological Department, Cardiothoracic Institute (University of London), Brompton Hospital, London. He is an Advisor to the World Health Organization's Special Programme on Safety measures in Microbiology and a member and Secretary to two other learned bodies in the UI<, has travelled widely in Europe, India, New Zealand and the United States, studying and lecturing on microbiological hazards and tuberculosis bacteriology and has a number of important publications. Ms Barbara Helen Czepulkowski, born in Ashton-under-Lyne, England in 1957, graduated from the University of Manchester in 1978 with a BSc (Hons) degree in genetics and cell biology. She worked as a Basic Grade Scientitic Onicer, Cytogenetics Department, Royal Manchester Children's Hospital for four years, following which she became a Research Assistant in the Cytogenetics Unit, St. Mary's Hospital Medical School, London, which provides a diagnostic cytogenetic service to the NW Thames Region, and also has a major research interest in the field of antenatal diagnosis, which included research on the first trimester prenatal diagnosis of chromosome defects and inborn errors of metabolism from chorionic villus biopsy. While at St Mary's Hospital Medical School, Ms Czepulkowski was also fully involved in the diagnostic work of the laboratory and the Medical School teaching programme for medical students on the paediatric course, and students in the pre-c1inical year. After leaving St Mary's Hospital, she was employed by St Bartholomew's Hospital as Senior Cytogeneticist, providing a diagnostic service dealing with bone marrow studies in malignant disease. She has now moved to employment as a full-time medical writer and Editor for the publishing company 'Mediscript', based in the. Ms Czepulkowski has 16 publications to her credit and three chapters in books (excluding the present Handbook). Dr B.L Diffey, born in Bedlinog, South Wales, in 1948, graduated with a BSc (1st Class Hons) in mathematics and physics and an AKC in theology in 1969, and obtained a PhD in physics in 1973, all from the University of London. He became a Fellow of the Institute of Physics in 1983. He first worked as a Basic Grade and Senior Grade Physicist at the Kent and Canterbury Hospital, Canterbury and is presently appointed as a Top Grade Physicist, Northern Regional Medical Physics Department and Head ofdurham Medical Physics Unit, Dryburn Hospital, Durham. Dr Diffey's special interests are concerned with the applications of ultraviolet radiation in medicine, an area in which he has made extensive contributions to the medical and scientific literature. He also provides an investigative service for patients who have skin diseases which are induced xiv

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS or aggravated by sunlight. More than 200 papers have been either published in the medica1 and scientific literature or presented at conferences and he has also written a book entitled Ultraviolet Radiation in Medicine published by Adam Hilger Limited (1982). Dr D DonaIdson, MBChB, MRCP, FRCPath, was born in Birmingham, England, in 1936. He graduated in medicine and surgery from the U niversity of Brimingham in 1959, and, after various hospital appointments worked as a Lecturer in the Department of Neurology, Institute of Neurology, Hospital for Nervous Diseases, London. His present appointment is as a Consultant Chemica1 Pathologist at the East Surrey Hospital, Redhill, Surrey. He has 37 publications, 2 chapters in books. In 1970 he published jointly with P.T. Lascelles Essential Diagnostic Tests (Medica1 and Technical Publishing Company) and in 1990 published Diagnostic Function Tests in Chemical Pathology jointly with P.T. Lascelles (Kluwer Academic Publishers). Dr Margaret ABn Hutchison (nee Foster), was born in Doncaster, England, in 1940 and obtained a BSc (Hons) from Durham U niversity in 1962, an MSc from St Andrew's University in 1968 and a PhD from Aberdeen University in 1978. She was a research student at the Gatty Marine Laboratory, University ofst Andrews, Research Associate in the Department ofbiological Sciences, University oflancaster and Research Fellow in the Department of Biomedical Physics and Bioengineering, U niversity of Aberdeen, in which department she is currently appointed as a Senior Lecturer. She is also an Honorary Senior Physicist to the Grampian Health Board, Aberdeen, and has many publications including a book Magnetic Resonance in Medicine and Biology published by Pergamon Press in 1984. Dr N.W. Garvie, MA, MSc, DMRD, MRCP, FRCR, was born in Woking, England, in 1948, trained at Cambridge University and The London Hospital Medica1 College, graduating in 1972. After training as a Radiologist in Southampton, he held Senior Registrar appointments in Nuclear Medicine at the Royal Marsden Hospital, Sutton, Surrey, The Wessex Regional Department of Nuclear Medicine, Southampton and at the UniversityClinic, UIrn, West Germany. He is currentlyconsultant Radiologist at The London Hospital, London, England. His research interests include isotope bone and cardiac imaging. Mr W.E. Green, born in Coleshill, Warwickshire, England, in 1923, is a Fellow of the Institute of Medica1 Laboratory Sciences. He trained at the Royal Air Force Institute of Pathology and Tropica1 Medicine and at the Department of Pathology, Leicester General Hospital, England. He was appointed to the Royal Air Force Mobile Field Hospitals and General Hospitals in England, Yugoslavia, Algeria and Egypt (1942-1947), was Senior Medica1 Laboratory Scientific Officer and Deputy Chief Medica1 Laboratory Scientific Officer, Leicester General Hospital, Senior Chief Medica1 Laboratory Scientific Officer, Department ofpathology, RedhilI General Hospital, and Principal Medica1 Laboratory Scientific Officer, District Pathology Service, East Surrey Health Authority. Other appointments included Lecturer in Haematology and Blood Transfusion and Secretary to the Academic Board for IMLS subjects at the Leicester xv

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS College of Technology and Commerce, Lecturer in Haematology and Blood Transfusion at the Crawley College of Further Education and Examiner in Haematology and Blood Transfusion for the Institute of Medical Laboratory Sciences. He retired from his appointment as Principal Medical Laboratory Scientific Officer in March 1987. Dr A.L. McKenzie, who was born in Wick, Scotland, in 1949, qualified for a BSc degree from Aberdeen University and a PhD degree from St Andrews University. He worked on laser research at St Andrews University and is currently Principal Physicist in Radiotherapy, Royal South Hants Hospital, Southampton, Safety Representative to the British MedicaI Laser Association and Laser Safety Officer for Hospitals in the Southampton district. He has published 13 papers on Lasers and several others on Radiotherapy, Urology and Computing. Miss MJ. Minski, BSc, CPhys, FlnstP, CChem, MRSC, was born in London, England in 1937, graduated from the University oflondon with a BSc (1st Class Hons) in chemistry and physics in 1959, then worked for 11 years with the Medical Research Council as part of the Radiological Protection Service concerned with radiation dose assessments to man. For the last 12 years she has been first a lecturer and currently a Senior Lecturer, as weil as Radiation Protection Adviser, at Imperial College, London, with research interests in the field of radioecology and trace elements in relation to disease. She has 70 publications, inc1uding two chapters in Metal Ions in Neurology and Psychiatry, published by A.R. Liss (1985) Harry Mosely is employed by the Health Board Department of Clinical Physics and Bio-Engineering in Glasgow with an honorary appointment at the University of Glasgow. He has worked in several branches of medical physics inc1uding ophthalmology in which he gained a doctorate for his thesis on fluid movement in the eye. Since then, he has specialised in non-ionising radiation. He is responsible for the provision of scientific support and for advising on safety aspects of non-ionising radiation to hospital users. He has lectured widely on medical applications and hazards and published extensively. Recently, he completed a textbook on Non-Ionising Radiation. Dr 1.0. Montoya, was born in Espanola, New Mexico, USA in 1950 and graduated from New Mexico State University. He trained at the Memorial General Hospital, Las Cruces, New Mexico, and is presently appointed as President of the Affiliated Systems Corporation, Houston, Texas, and Clinical Assistant Professor, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Texas. Dr Montoya has published 5 papers to date. xvi

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS Dr R.S. Osbom, born in 1929 in Weston-Super-Mare, England was educated at Coiston's Girls' School, Bristol; University College Southampton; Bristol College of Technology and Regent St Polytechnic, London. She obtained a BSc General (Lond) (Physics, Pure Mathematics, Applied Mathematics) in 1952; BSc Physics (Lond) in 1956; PhD (Crystallography) (Lond) in 1972. She did research on the physical properties of metals and alloys, and crystallography, in the aircraft industry, Bristol, 1952-1955, was Assistant Lecturer (Physics) at North West Kent College oftechnology, 1956-1960, and Lecturer (Physics) at Woolwich Polytechnic, 1960-1966. Dr Osborn carried out research in crystallography, (powder and single-crystal work), at Imperial College ofscience and Technology, 1966-1984, and has heen apart-time assistant to the Radiation Protection Adviser, and Adviser on X-ray safety at Imperial College of Science and Technology since her early retirement in 1984. Mr T. Pendry, was born at Broadstairs, Kent, England in 1932. He is a Fellow of the Institute of Animal Technicians (FlAT). He has worked as Head Technician in a Biological Research Department (in the Pharmaceutical Industry) and as Principal Chief Animal Technician in medical research units concerned with the production and use of laboratory animals. Currently employed as Senior Scientitic Officer in the Medical Research Council's Toxicology Unit in the capacity of Laboratory Manager. Mr R. Putneywas born in London, England in 1947, where he graduated with the Master of Science degree from London University in 1974. Since then he has worked in medical physics, initially in radiotherapy and subsequently in diagnostic radiology, particularly in the field of radiation. His present post is as a Principal Grade Physicist to the London Hospital and he also provides support in the development of physics services throughout the districl Dr M.P. Ramanujam was born on Octoher 8,1949 in the Union Territory of Pondicherry in India. He obtained his postgraduate degree in Botany through Presidency College, Madras in 1971 and won the 'FYSON PRIZE' for the best herbarium. Later, in 1982, he obtained a doctorate degree in Botany (Plant Pathology) from the Centre for Advanced Study in Botany, University of Madras. He is the author of several research and popular science articles. He has also received a long-term teacher research fellowship under the Faculty Improvement Programme. Activeiy engaged in research and popularization of science, he is also closeiy associated with several voluntary organizations and government agencies. xvii

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS Mr J.K. Robb, born in Houston, Texas, USA in 1950, qualified as a Bachelor of Architecture from Tulane University in 1974. In 1976 he obtained a Master of Business Administration from the University of Houston. He is a Registered Architect and Member of the American Insitute of Architects. Initially, Mr Robb began his career as a medica1 equipment planner and he practised as a Health Care Facility Analyst and Planner for 13 years. Currently, he is a Senior Consultant with Robert Douglass Associates, Inc. assisting in planning, management, and equipping hospitals and health care facilities. Dr W.L. Ruff, born in Columbia, South Carolina, USA, in 1938, received a BS in chemistry from Hampton Institute, Hampton, Virginia, in 1960 and, subsequently, a PhD in biochemistry from Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, in 1970. After graduate school, he served as a Senior Fellow in Clinica1 Chemistry at the University of Washington Hospital and Harborview Medical Center, SeattIe, Washington. He holds a Diploma from the American Board ofclinica1 Chemistry and is a Fellow of the National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry. Dr Ruff is currently Associate Director of Clinical Laboratories, Howard U niversity Hospital, Washington, De. He is also an Associate Professor of Pathology in the Howard University College of Medicine as weil as being Safety Officer and Chairman of the Howard University Hospital Clinical Laboratories Safety Committee and member of the Howard University Hospital Safety Committee. For the past four years, he has been the American Association for Clinica1 Chemistry's (AACC) representative on the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Technical Committee 56C which writes the "Safety Standard for Laboratories in Health-Related Institutions". He has been a member of the AACC Safe Laboratory Practices Committee for eight years and has presented round table discussions on laboratory safety, participated in safety workshops and published articles on safety. He is also a member of the Division of Chemical Health and Safety of the American Chemica1 Society. Dr E.J. Slater, CEng, MIERE, MIEE, who was born in Walsall, England in 1954, read electrical and electronic engineering at Nottingham University where he obtained a BSc degree with first dass honours and subsequently a PhD for work on a blind mobility aid. He was registered as a Chartered Engineer in 1982. Currently, he is a Principal Medica1 Physicist in a large teaching hospital in Nottingham where he has responsibility for all aspects of e1ectrical safety in laboratory and medica1 equipment. He has a number of publications in the field of medical e1ectronics. Mr J.H. Smith was born in Burton-upon-Trent in December 1941. He is a Fellow of the Institute of Medica1 Laboratory Sciences and worked for five years in the four major disciplines of pathology before specialising in clinica1 chemistry. He joined the Department of Clinica1 Chemistry at Birmingham General Hospital and was appointed Senior Chief MLSO in 1974. He is apart-time Lecturer and Examiner for the Fellowship Examination and his responsibilities inciude the position of Safety Officer, co-ordination of quality control and a special interest in analyses performed in ward areas. He has published 2 papers and aseries of articles associated with reflectance meter performance. xviii

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS Professor D.M. Taylor, BSc (Liverpool), PbD (London), DSc (Liverpool), CCbem, FRSC, MRCPatb, was born in London, England in 1927. An initial training in biochemistry was followed by thirty years of research mainly in the field of radiation biochemistry, radiotoxicology and pathology. Formerly Senior Lecturer in Radiation Biocbemistry and head of the Radiopharmacology Department, Institute of Cancer Researcb, University of London, since 1979 he has held the posts of Professor of Radiotoxicology at the University of Heidelberg and Director, Institute for Genetics and Toxicology, Kernforschungszentrum, Karlsruhe, Federal Republic of Germany. Professor Taylor has had manyyears of experience as a Radiation Safcty Officer and as a member, or former member, of a number of local, national or international advisory committees in the field of radiation protection. He has more than 150 publications in scientific literature in the fields of biochemistry, radiation biology, cancer chemotherapy and radiotoxicology. Dr R. Toynton was born in Crail, Scotland in 1952, and obtained a BSc(Hons) in Physical Geography and Geology from the University of Liverpool in 1974, followed by a PhO in groundwater pollution from the University of East Anglia, Norwich in 1979. During the period from 1979 to 1984, while Keeper of Natural Science in Scunthorpe Museum, in addition to fieldwork involved with this post, as a part-time tutor for extra-mural departments at the University of Hull and the University of Nottingharn, he undertook a programme of geological expeditions with groups drawn from the general public. Since 1974, as lecturer in Earth Science with the Division of Continuing Education at the University of Sheffield, he has led a large number of such fjeld courses in Britain and occasionally abroad. His present research is into flint formation and he has published a number of papers. Dr D. Whelpton was born in Sheffield, England in 1938, where he obtained a BSc in physics and subsequently a PhD in medical electronics. He was employed in Sheffield and at the University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff, before moving to The Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingharn. He currently serves on the committee for the safety of general medical electrical equipment and has a number of publications concerned with electrical safety as weil as many other aspects of medical physics. Dr A.R. Williams, born in Cardiff, Wales,, in 1944, obtained a BSc (Hons) degree in biochemistry, ancillary subjects being chemistry and physiology, from the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire, Cardiff, Wales. He then held the post of Research Biochemist at the Velindre Memorial Hospital for Cancer Research, Cardiff, during which period he completed an MSc thesis. He was then appointed Research Associate at the Oepartment of Microbiology, University College, Cardiff, and, whilst there, obtained a PhO degree with a thesis related to the biological effects of ultrasonic irradiation. His next appointment was as Lecturer in Biophysics at the Oepartment of Anatomy, University of Manchester, followed by a year as a Visiting Scientist at the United States Food and Drug Administration, Washington, OC where his duties were to assist the Bureau of Radiological Health in their ultrasound bio-haxix

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS zards research programme and to help draft the performance standard for medical instrumentation emitting ultrasonic radiation. Dr Williams at present occupies the position of Senior Lecturer at the Department of Medical Biophysics, University ofmanchester. In addition to this full-time post, he has been appointed Visiting Professor of Biophysics at the Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Southern California in Los AngeIes and Visiting Professor of Physics at the Department of Physics, University of Vermont, for the duration of their periods of active collaboration. He is a founder member of the European Committee for Ultrasound Radiation Safety and is currently compiling and editing an Environmental Health Criteria Document on Ultrasound for the World Health Organization. He has also written a book on tbis topic wbich will be published by Academic Press and has a further 60 publications to bis credit. Dr A.E. Wright was born in Darlington, Co. Durharn, England in 1923, and qualified in medicine at Durharn University in 1948, taking the DPH in 1954 and the MD in 1957. He trained as a Microbiologist with the Public Health Laboratory Service, taking the Dip Bact at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine in 1958. He is presently Director of the Newcastle upon Tyne Regional Public Health Laboratory, Chairman of the PHLS Safety Committee and Member of the Safety Committee of the Association of Medical Microbiologists as weil as Temporary Consultant to WHO on a number of technical committees on safety in laboratories. Dr Wright is the author of a number of articles and chapters on aspects of safety in the laboratory and the environment. xx