WRITTEN EXPRESSION DISORDERS

WRITTEN EXPRESSION DISORDERS

NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND COGNITION VOLUME 10 Series Editor: R. Malatesha Joshi, Oklahoma State University, US.A. Advisory Board: Alfonso Caramazza, The Johns Hopkins University, US.A. George Hynd, University of Georgia, US.A. C.K. Leong, University of Saskatchewan, Canada John Marshall, University of Oxford, UK. Gabriele Miceli, Universita Cattolica Del Sacro Cuore, Italy Loraine Obler, City University of New York, US.A. Sandra Witelson, McMaster University, Canada The purpose of the Neuropsychology and Cognition series is to bring out volumes that promote understanding in topics relating brain and behavior. It is intended for use by both clinicians and research scientists in the fields of neuropsychology, cognitive psychology, psycholinguistics, speech and hearing, as well as education. Examples of topics to be covered in the series would relate to memory, language acquisition and breakdown, reading, attention, developing and aging brain. By addressing the theoretical, empirical, and applied aspects of brain-behavior relationships, this series will try to present the information in the fields of neuropsychology and cognition in a coherent manner. The titles published in this series are listed at the end o/this volume.

Written Expression Disorders by NOELGREGG The University of Georgia, Learning Disabilities Center SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

Library of Congress Catologing-in-Publication Data Noel, Gregg, 1949- Hritten expression disorders! by Noel Gregg. p. cm. -- (Neuropsychology and cognition ; 10) Includes bibl iographical references and index. ISBN 978-94-010-4131-7 ISBN 978-94-011-0297-1 (ebook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-011-0297-1 1. Agraphia. 2. Hritten communication--psychological aspects. 3. Hriting--Psychological aspects. 4. Neurolinguistics. 5. Social inguistics. I. Title. II. Series. RC429.N64 1995 616.85'53--dc20 95-1441 ISBN 978-94-010-4131-7 AII Rights Reserved 1995 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 1995 Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover Ist edition 1995 No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utiiized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner. (an acid-ji-ee paper)

This book is dedicated to: My biological and adoptive mothers - for giving me a chance. and My intellectual mothers, those women scholars whose work provided the foundation for this text.

Contents Preface ix 1. Integrated Model of Written Expression: An Overview 2. Spelling Disorders 14 3. Written Syntax Disorders 34 4. Disorders with Written Text Structure 54 5. Motor Disorders 91 6. Social Cognition and Written Expression Disorders 106 Epilogue 119 Bibliography 123 VII

Preface Written expression disorders are identified by psychologists, educators, and clinicians as symptomatic for a large percentage of individuals with specific learning disabilities. Although written expression disorders are often clinically identified as problematic for persons with learning disabilities, there has been limited empirical research focused on the breakdown of written language, particularly in areas such as written syntax, text structure, and sense of audience. A major responsibility and challenge to educators and psychologists is the development of more effective procedures to investigate the complexity of this higher order system, as well as conducting both qualitative and quantitative research to explore the neurological and sociolinguistic influences on the process of written expression. A review of recent literature concerning the written language characteristics of individuals with learning disabilities demonstrating written expression disorders reveals a need for extensive research in this area (Gregg, 1992). The term agraphia has historically been applied to disorders of written language without a clear description of the term and/or application to assessment. The majority of the research regarding agraphia has been narrow in focus and gathered primarily from clinical observations of patients with acquired neurological disorders. Working from a somewhat simplistic definition of written discourse, researchers have investigated the relationship of agraphia to aphasia and dyslexia and have attempted to classify the various types of agraphia. One cannot assume that conclusions drawn from acquired disorders will apply directly to developmental disorders, however, an investigation of this research does provide a foundation for grasping the impact of cognitive processing networks on the written discourse of individuals with specific learning disabilities. Research from the field of cognitive psychology has also contributed to a better understanding of developmental written expression disorders. Myklebust (1965) was one of the first researchers to define dysgraphia from a developmental perspective, differentiating it from ataxia and paralytic disorders. Myklebust used the term dysgraphia to apply only to disorders that are "symbolic in nature". Describing dysgraphia as a type of apraxia, he felt that a breakdown occurred between the mental image of the word and the motor system. More recently, researchers like Ellis (1982) have proposed new sophisticated models illustrating the cognitive networks impacting on written ix

x Preface expression. Rapp and Caramazza (1989) stress the importance of identifying neurological functional proximity rather than neural proximity when trying to understand the association of deficits in written expression. Debate continues on identifying the specific cognitive networks utilized across written expression tasks. Therefore, the areas of written language most impacted on by cognitive breakdowns are presented in this text with hypotheses as to the causation of the problem and the development of more accurate diagnostic criteria. These areas include spelling, syntax, text organization, motor, and sense of audience. Vygotsky (1962) wrote extensively about the complex process of writing and postulated that learning to write involves the mastering of cognitive skills within the development of new social understanding. To transform the inner language to written text requires one to step outside of thought to enter the social context of the reader. Researchers are recognizing the impact of social context on individual achievement and have begun to develop methods to investigate cognitive development within real world settings rather than defining cognitive ability as totally innate. As Rosa and Montero (1990) state: "Cognition is a social product that is achieved through interaction" (p. 82). The interaction of cognitive and sociocultural context cannot be underestimated in any discussion of written expression disorders. Despite an increased awareness of and interest in the developmental written expression disorders, professionals remain confused as to: (a) how to diagnose written expression disorders; (b) how to best construct a theoretical model(s); ( c) how to most appropriately identify a specific diagnosis, and (d) how to account for the significant variability in written expression competency across the population of writers demonstrating specific learning disabilities. The purpose of this current text is to address these questions from a critical perspective. In particular, the text was designed to review five areas of written expression (i.e., spelling, syntax, text structure, motor, and sense of audience) and critique the research pertaining to individuals with specific learning disabilities across each of these areas. In addition, a model of written expression disorders is presented that attempts to integrate a neurological and sociolinguistic perspective. It is hoped that the empirical nature of these chapters will provide some guidance for the continued evolution of the classification of written expression disorders. The text was designed to provide a critical evaluation of literature from the fields of neurolinguistics and sociolinguistics with respect to the written expression disorders of individuals with specific learning disabilities. The major goal of this volume is to provide contemporary assessment and intervention guidelines for the clinician and researcher that are based on empirical research across each of the areas of written expression investigated (i.e., spelling, syntax, text structure, motor, and sense of audience). Therefore, the text was written for professionals and graduate students in the fields of clinical psychology, school psychology, special education, communication disorders, reading, language education, and other related fields. Each chapter contains an introduction to the area; a discussion of the historical development of the area which includes a neurolinguistic and sociolinguistic perspective; a critique of definitions issues pertaining to the area; a review of the literature investigating writers with specific learning disabilities across ages and severity that focus on the

Preface xi specific area of written language being discussed (i.e., spelling, syntax, text structure, motor, and sense of audience); and a review offuture research needs related to the specific area of written language. This text contains six chapters and is organized around the neurolingustic and sociolinguistic processes impacting on written expression development. Chapter One, Integrated Model of Written Expression: An Overview, reviews the interacting cognitive, affective and situational variables impacting on written expression. A model of written expression is introduced that incorporates research from the fields of neurolinguistics and sociolinguistics. This model becomes the foundation from which the following chapters organize information related to the different areas of written expression. Chapter Two, Spelling Disorders, goes into detail describing the specific cognitive systems (i.e., lexical, semantic, phonological, morphological, graphemic buffer, and motor) and sociolinguistic influences that can be impacted by a written expression disorder on the task of spelling. In Chapter Three, Written Syntax Disorders, a critique ofthree models of sentence production (i.e., generative grammar, neuroanatomical, and psycholinguistic) is presented first and followed by definitional/assessment issues, a review of empirical research related to the written sentence production of individuals with specific learning disabilities, and future research needs in this area. Following, Chapter Four, Disorders with Written Text Structure, begins with a historical review of the literature from the fields of sociolinguistics and neurolinguistics pertaining to text structure. The chapter concludes with an examination of definitional criteria and a discussion of the research investigating the text structure competence of individuals with specific learning disabilities. Chapter Five,Motor Disorders, begins with a historical review of the motor disorders which are commonly identified in the population of writers demonstrating specific learning disabilities, which include: (a) clumsiness; (b) non-fluent dysphasic dysgraphia; (c) pure dysgraphia; (d) material specific dyspraxia; (e) dysgraphia and unilaterial left ideomotor dyspraxia; (t) dyspraxic dysgraphia with dyslexia; (g) synkinesis; (h) micrographia; and (i) hyperkinetic. Following a discussion of each of these motor disorders, definitional and assessment issues are discussed. The last two sections of the motor disorders chapter include a review of the literature related to individuals with specific learning disabilities and projected research needs related to motor disorders. Chapter Six, Social Cognition, begins with a review of writing characteristics of social cognition deficits as seen in written expression and follows with a critique of the historical development of this area of written language. The chapter ends with a review of diagnostic criteria, assessment issues, and future research needs in this area. The text concludes with an Epilogue highlighting the major research needs pertaining to written expression disorders discussed throughout the chapters. Although this text is not a comprehensive listing of all aspects of written expression disorders, it was the intent of the author to provide specific suggestions for clinicians and researchers regarding the written expression disorders of individuals with specific learning disabilities across age, severity level and type of learning disability. As such, it is the hope of this author that this text will contribute to the ongoing evolution and refinement of definitions, assessment measures, and intervention techniques effective with individuals demonstrating specific learning disabilities.

xii Preface ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In addition, to the many children, adolescents, and adults I have had the opportunity to learn from both in relation to assessment and intervention, without whom this project would never have been possible, I would like to extend sincere gratitude to several important individuals. I would like to thank George Hynd, Ed.D., Chair of The University of Georgia School of Professional Studies, and Cheri Hoy, Ph.D., Department Head of The University of Georgia Department of Special Education for their encouragement and support during the writing of this text. My sincere appreciation, beyond which words can express, go to Don Jackson, for the development of the graphics, typing, and layout of this text. In addition, I would like to thank Vicki Martin for being sure I had some opportunities to be undisturbed during the writing of the text. N.G.