Seminar on higher education at the Ministry of National Education, Ankara, Turkey, 4 February 2005 Higher Education in Japan Incorporation of national universities and the development of private universities - Research Institute for Higher Education Jun Oba Research Institute for Higher Education Hiroshima University, Japan oba@hiroshima-u.ac.jp 1
2 Contents I Education system in Japan II Higher education in Japan III Incorporation of national universities IV The development of private universities V Where are national universities going? VI What is the future of Japanese higher education?
3 I Education system in Japan Introduction of a modern education system after the Meiji Restoration (1868) - Education System Order (Gakusei) in 1872 Generalisation of elementary education at the beginning of the 20 th century
Percentage of children in full time elementary education between 1875 and 1925 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Total Boys Girls 0 1875 1880 1885 1890 1895 1900 1905 1910 1915 1920 1925 4
Organisation of the school system in 1944 5
6 After World War II Entire revision under the occupation Nine-year compulsory education Unified into a single track system universities being open to every graduate of an uppersecondary school abolition of distinction among higher education institutions
7 Organisation of the present school system normal age school year 26 21 Doctor University 25 20 (graduate school) 24 19 23 18 22 17 Master 21 16 20 15 University 19 14 (faculty) College Advanced Junior college 18 13 courses Special 17 12 of training 16 11 Upper secondary school school 15 10 Secondary Technology education 14 9 school 13 8 Lower secondary school 12 7 11 6 10 5 9 4 Elementary school 8 3 Higher education 7 2 6 1 5 4 Kindergarten 3 Secondary education Primary education Pre-school education compulsory education
Number of schools, students and teachers as of 1 st May 2004 Number of schools (private) Kindergarten 14,061 (8,363) Elementary school 23,420 (187) Lower secondary school 11,102 (709) Upper secondary school 5,429 (1,329) Secondary education school 18 (9) Special education schools (for handicapped children) 999 (12) Number of students (private) 1,753,396 (1,390,001) 7,200,929 (69,300) 3,663,512 (236,006) 3,719,048 (569,454) 6,051 (3,355) 98,796 (815) Number of teachers* (private) 109,853 (83,789) 414,887 (3,480) 249,801 (12,840) 255,629 (60,107) 470 (247) 62,255 (259) * full-time only 8
9 Number of schools (private) College of technology 63 (3) Junior college 508 (451) University 709 (542) Special training school 3,443 (3,228) Number of students (private) 58,681 (2,296) 233,749 (214,264) 2,809,323 (2,062,065) 791,540 (761,735) Number of teachers* (private) 4,474 (158) 12,740 (11,082) 158,756 (86,683) 40,675 (37,902) * full-time only
10 Cost of education Free compulsory education very few private institutions Upper secondary education cheap public education expensive private education Higher education 3/4 students enrolled in private institutions expensive (public institutions as well to lesser degree)
11 Curriculum Primary and secondary schools Curriculum determined by the Government Textbooks edited by private publishers based on the national curriculum, then authorised by the Government Higher education institutions At their discretion
12 A very good performance in primary and secondary education Ranking in the OECD's PISA 2000 first group for mathematics and science second group for reading PISA 2003 still in the same groups as the PISA 2000 Japan slightly lowered its ranking by country.
PISA 2000: Top 10 Reading Mathematics Science 1 Finland Japan South Korea 2 Canada South Korea Japan 3 New Zealand New Zealand Finland 4 Australia Finland UK 5 Ireland Australia Canada 6 South Korea Canada New Zealand 7 UK Switzerland Australia 8 Japan UK Austria 9 Sweden Belgium Ireland 10 Austria France Sweden 13
PISA 2003 : Top 10 and Japan Reading Mathematics Problem-solving 1 Finland Finland South Korea 2 South Korea Japan Hong Kong 3 Canada Hong Kong Finland 4 Australia South Korea Japan 5 Lichtenstein Lichtenstein New Zealand 6 New Zealand Australia Macao 7 Ireland Macao Australia 8 Sweden Holland Lichtenstein 9 Holland Czech Republic Canada 10 Hong Kong New Zealand Belgium -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14 Japan 14
15 II Higher education in Japan Foundation of modern higher education institutions Establishment of the University of Tokyo (later Imperial University, then Tokyo Imperial University) by the government in 1887 Other imperial universities in major cities
16 Characteristics of these institutions Governmental institutions Organised on the German model Bureaucratic system with quasi-autonomous academic units (faculties)
17 Integration of the German model and the Japanese system faculties of engineering and agriculture, generally classed in a polytechnic system in Europe cf. In the 1990s in the world integration of polytechnics into university system (UK, Australia, etc.)
18 Other institutions Governmental institutions other than imperial universities Local public institutions Private institutions University Order in 1918 acknowledgement of the university status to non-governmental institutions
19 Number of higher education institutions as of 1943 Universities [imperial universities] Specialised Schools Total Governmental (national) 19 [7] 58 77 Local public 2 24 26 Private 28 134 162 Total 49 [7] 216 275
20 Characteristics of pre-war higher education Well-organised bureaucratic administration system in governmental institutions Coexistence of the three sectors of higher education institutions governmental (national), local public and private Absolute priority to the national institutions, especially the imperial universities
21 After the war (as of 1949) 70 national universities without difference in legal status among them 17 local public universities 81 private universities Junior colleges (regarded as provisional)
22 University education after the war Introduction of the American model Two layers of undergraduate education general education two-year specialised education School of liberal arts
23 The planned expansion of higher education after 1975 A decade plan for higher education from 1976 to 1986 Creation of special training schools (advanced courses) as non-university institutions
Trends in 18-year-old population and access to higher education 250 50% 225 45% 200 40% 175 35% tens of thousands 150 125 100 30% 25% 20% 75 15% 50 10% 25 5% 0 0% 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 18-year-olds Entrants (universities & junior colleges) Ratio of the age group advancing to universities and junior colleges 24
25 III Incorporation of national universities 1. The University Council and deregulation in higher education Towards the universal phase (M. Trow) Over 50% in 1987 (non-university sector included) Decade plan was over in 1986 Establishment of the University Council in 1987 academic and non-academic members comprehensive study on higher education
26 Abolition of subject areas in 1991 structure curricula reflecting their own educational ideals and objectives no definition of subject areas, such as general education and specialised education no requirement on obtaining a certain number of credits in each subject area (acquisition of a minimum total number of credits only)
1998 Report A Vision for the University of the 21st Century and Future Reform Measures : Distinctive Universities in a Competitive Environment Improve the quality of education and research with the purpose of nurturing the ability to investigate issues; Secure university autonomy by making the educational and research system structure more flexible; Establish university administration and management with responsible decision-making and implementation; and Individualise universities and continuously improve their education and research by establishing multiple evaluation systems. 27
28 2. Incorporation of national universities in 2004 Change in the status of the governmental institutions Legal personality and more autonomy Non-public servant status for staff Participation of external people in university administration
Recommendations, if necessary Commission on Policy Evaluation and Evaluation of Independent Administrative Institutions (Ministry of Public Management and Home Affairs) Draft (opinions) of MTG Preparation of MTP MEXT Consultations on MTG/MTP, etc. Presentation of MTG Approval of MTP Report on the results of evaluation Opinions on MTG/MTP, etc. Opinions, if necessary Evaluation Committee for National University Corporations Evaluation Report on the results of evaluation Report on the results of evaluation on education and research Independent Administrative Institution National Institution for Academic Degrees and University Evaluation (NIAD-UE) Preparation of annual plan Peer review National university corporations MTG: medium-term goals MTP: medium-term plan 29
30 National University Corporation President selection committee Auditors External experts only Internal representatives designated by the president Administrative council External experts President Executives Board of directors Internal representatives concerning education and research Education and research council
31 After incorporation - what has happened and problems Finance Governance Evaluation
32 (1) Financial stability of national universities Operational grant to be diminished from FY2005 Rise of standards of fees set by the MEXT revision of fees up to each university Difficulty in finding other sources
33 Cost of the increased autonomy Confrontation with student and staff unions Pressure from the community Different fees among national universities? Very precarious situation of national universities
34 (2) Improvement of the university governance Efforts for dissolution of the "dual structure" Construction of an administrative structure centring on the president
Administrative Council Education and Research Council Co-ordination Committee of directors of Faculties, Graduate Schools and Research Institutes President President s bureau Control Bureau Board of Directors Eval. Committee Auditors Vice-president (attached schools) Vice-president Executive (education and students) Vice-president Executive (research and international relations Vice-president Executive (collaboration) Vice-president Executive (ICT) Vice-president Executive (finances) Vice-president Executive (personnel and general affairs) Vice-president Executive (hospital) Attached Schools Office Education Office Research Office Collaboration Office ICT Policy Office Office of Finance Personnel and General Affairs Office Office of the Hospital Centres for common use Faculties Graduate schools Research institutes University hospital 35
36 Leadership of the president Wide (and positive) participation of constituent members Development of non-academic staff
37 (3) The evaluation Underdeveloped evaluation methods Time consuming
38 IV The development of private universities 1. Public financing to private institutions Expansion of private institutions instead of public institutions Private School Promotion Subsidy Law in 1975
Current expenditures of private HE institutions and Government subsidies 30,000 27,500 25,000 22,500 20,000 17,500 15,000 12,500 10,000 7,500 5,000 2,500 0 Total cost (100 million yen) Subsidies (100 million yen) subsidies/total cost (%) 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 30.0% 27.5% 25.0% 22.5% 20.0% 17.5% 15.0% 12.5% 10.0% 7.5% 5.0% 2.5% 0.0% 39
40 2. Public and private universities in direct competition Governmental funds to HE institutions in the FY2003 97 national institutions and others : 1,525,606 million yen 989 private universities and junior colleges : 321,750 million yen
41 The first year tuition fees (entrance fees included) by sector and the ratio of tuition fees of private universities to those of national universities 1,100,000 1,050,000 1,000,000 950,000 900,000 850,000 800,000 750,000 700,000 650,000 600,000 550,000 500,000 450,000 400,000 350,000 300,000 250,000 200,000 150,000 100,000 50,000 0 National Universities Local public universities Private universities Private/National 3.25 3.00 2.75 2.50 2.25 2.00 1.75 1.50 1.25 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25 0.00 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Yen
42 Public expenditure on higher education (2000) in OECD countries 4.8 4.5 4.3 4.0 4.7 4.6 4.2 4.1 4.3 4.1 as a percentage of total public expenditure as a percentage of GDP 3.8 3.5 3.6 3.4 3.5 3.3 3.2 3.0 3.0 2.9 2.9 2.8 2.5 2.3 2.0 1.8 1.5 1.3 1.0 0.8 0.5 1.2 2.7 1.4 2.6 1.3 2.0 1.8 0.8 2.5 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.4 1.1 2.1 0.9 1.0 2.6 1.1 1.3 1.8 0.8 1.6 0.5 2.7 0.7 0.9 1.3 1.7 1.8 0.8 2.3 2.4 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.2 2.5 1.0 1.1 1.2 0.3 0.0 Australia Austria Belgium Canada Czeck Rep. Denmark Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Japan Korea Mexico NL Norway Poland Portugal Spain Sweden Switzerland UK USA OECD Total
43 Increase in competitive funds open to public and private institutions Competitive funds open indifferently to public and private institutions
44 Top 15 universities ranked by the amount of competitive research funds awarded by the Government (million yen) 40,000 37,177 35,000 30,000 25,000 20,000 18,601 15,000 15,591 11,924 10,000 5,000 8,784 8,420 7,640 5,924 4,978 4,169 3,138 2,586 2,586 2,554 2,517 0 Tokyo Kyoto Osaka Tohoku Nagoya Kyushu Hokkaido TITech Keio (private) Tsukuba Hiroshima Chiba Waseda (private) TMDU Kobe
45 For-profit universities For-profit universities in Special Zones for Structural Reform on experimental basis from 2004
V Where are national universities going? Continuous discussions on the privatisation of national universities Prime Minister Koizumi at the Diet Opposition party's policy Newspapers' questionnaire etc. Where are national universities going? 46
Government control Strong State Facility Model Germany France Japan (former national universities)? Financial autonomy Weak??? State Trust Model United Kingdom US (state universities) Weak Japan (private universities) China? US (private universities) State Management Model Strong Corporate Model Based on the model presented by M. Kaneko 47
48 Increasingly blurred distinction between public and private sectors increased autonomy for national universities declining governmental support for national universities competitive funds open to every sector institutional evaluation (accreditation) for all universities every seven years
49 VI What is the future of Japanese higher education? Closing distance between the public and private sectors National universities will survive, at least for the time being. political administrative
50 Functional differentiation being more important. Difficult institutional evaluation.
51 The Government should be more supportive. rather than controls or evaluations paraeducational activities or services