Classroom Writing Assessment and Feedback in L2 School Contexts

Classroom Writing Assessment and Feedback in L2 School Contexts

Icy Lee Classroom Writing Assessment and Feedback in L2 School Contexts

Icy Lee Faculty of Education The Chinese University of Hong Kong Hong Kong ISBN 978-981-10-3922-5 DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-3924-9 ISBN 978-981-10-3924-9 (ebook) Library of Congress Control Number: 2017934080 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Preface As a second language writing teacher educator-researcher, I first became keenly interested in issues about error correction in L2 writing in the late 1990s. Like many feedback researchers, I found myself deeply engrossed in the topic after reading Truscott s (1996) landmark article published in Language Learning, where he argued vehemently against grammar correction in L2 writing. My early research on error correction (e.g., Lee 1997, 2004, 2005) soon took me to new heights, urging me to take a closer look at feedback in L2 writing from multiple and critical perspectives e.g., why teachers give feedback in the ways they do and why feedback advice is not translated into classroom practice (Lee 2008, 2011a, 2013). My research activities on feedback in L2 writing coincided with a time when the paradigm shift from summative to formative assessment in education has turned the tide for second language assessment in favor of assessment that promotes student learning. Since then, assessment for learning has become the buzzword in education, including second language education. In different parts of the world, education reforms consist in assessment innovations that are geared toward learning-oriented assessment i.e., using assessment to inform and improve student learning. In L2 writing, the assessment for learning tide is too powerful to be swept aside. Classroom writing assessment is futile if it does not help students learn better and become better writers. Feedback is ineffective if it does not improve student learning. Informed by perspectives on assessment for learning, I constantly ask myself how classroom writing assessment and feedback can be effectively utilized to enhance student learning of writing. My quest for the holy grail has witnessed a growth and broadening of my own research and professional interests where classroom assessment and feedback are increasingly seen as intertwined (Lee 2011b, c; Lee and Coniam 2013), culminating in this book that examines the role of classroom writing assessment and feedback in enhancing student learning. As a second language writing teacher educator, I am particularly interested in the school context. This is partly because I started my teaching career as a secondary English teacher myself, but more importantly my mission as a university professor is to provide effective training of preservice and inservice teachers for primary and secondary English language teaching. With my research and professional interest in v

vi Preface second language writing, my heart is always in making a difference to the teaching and learning of writing in schools. Also, the bulk of the literature on second language writing serves the interests and needs of teachers and researchers working in the tertiary context. By focusing on classroom writing assessment and feedback in L2 school contexts, the book can fill a gap in the existing second language writing literature. Although this book addresses classroom writing assessment and feedback for school-age L2 learners, I am aware that the L2 school context can refer to thousands of different contexts, ESL and EFL, and primary and secondary classrooms with a wide spectrum of characteristics, comprising students of divergent proficiency levels, different motivations, and diverse language and cultural backgrounds. Despite the differences across the whole range of school contexts, one thing common to all school contexts is that currently classroom writing assessment and feedback are not sufficiently utilized to maximize student learning of writing. Also, L2 writing teachers working with young learners lack assessment literacy to advance students learning and improve their writing. This book is motivated by my wish to address these exigent needs. More than a decade ago, US-based assessment scholar Rick Stiggins wrote, If we wish to maximize student achievement, we must pay far greater attention to the improvement of classroom assessment (Stiggins 2002, p. 1). The same holds true for L2 writing classrooms, where classroom assessment and feedback have a crucial role to play in leveraging student achievement in writing. By bringing together these two key components of L2 writing, I hope that this book can provide useful classroom assessment and feedback training for L2 writing teachers, as well as new insights about promising avenues for future investigations for L2 writing researchers. Hong Kong Icy Lee References Lee, I. (1997). ESL learners performance in error correction in writing: Some implications for teaching. System, 25(4), 465 477. Lee, I. (2004). Error correction in L2 secondary writing classrooms: The case of Hong Kong. Journal of Second Language Writing, 13(4), 285 312. Lee, I. (2005). Error correction in the L2 writing classroom: What do students think? TESL Canada Journal, 22(2), 1 16. Lee, I. (2008). Understanding teachers written feedback practices in Hong Kong secondary classrooms. Journal of Second Language Writing, 17(2), 69 85. Lee, I. (2011a). Feedback revolution: What gets in the way? ELT Journal, 65(1), 1 12. Lee, I. (2011b). Formative assessment in EFL writing: An exploratory case study. Changing English: Studies in Culture and Education, 18(1), 99 111. Lee, I. (2011c). Bringing innovation to EFL writing through a focus on assessment for learning. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 5(1), 19 33.

Preface vii Lee, I. (2013). Research into practice: Written corrective feedback. Language Teaching, 46(1), 108 119. Stiggins, R. (2002, June). Assessment crisis: The absence of assessment for learning. Phi Delta Kappan, 1 10. Truscott, J. (1996). The case against grammar correction in second language writing classes. Language Learning, 46, 327 369.

Acknowledgments I started working on the book when I was spending my sabbatical at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE), the University of Toronto, in May and June 2015. I want to thank my home institution, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, for granting me sabbatical leave during the second semester of 2014 2015 so that I could work on the book project. I am grateful to Professor Alister Cumming for hosting me as a visiting professor at OISE and for allowing me to use his office. I also owe much to Anke and Ben Mok for their warm hospitality throughout my two-month stay in their Markham home, during which time I was able to work on my writing without any disruption. I still have fond memories of Cooper, the lovely puppy, keeping me company most of the time when I was working in front of the computer. I wish to thank all the teachers with whom I have come into contact over the years, who have enabled me to gain tremendous insight into classroom writing assessment and feedback in primary and secondary classrooms. They include those who have attended my university teacher education classes, invited me to organize school-based professional development activities, and partnered with me on research projects. I have benefited greatly from the valuable feedback provided by Professor Alister Cumming and the two anonymous reviewers, as well as my research team (all former doctoral students from the Chinese University of Hong Kong: Pauline Mak, Colin Yu, and Eric Yuan). Their insights have played a significant role in sharpening my ideas for the book. On a personal level, I d like to express great appreciation to my husband, Rickie Chan, and my sons, Tony and Gareth Chan, who have constantly made me believe that I can balance my multiple roles as a wife, a mother, and a university teacher-researcher. I dedicate this book to my deceased father, who could not read English but instilled in me a great passion for English, and to my Heavenly Father, the source of inspiration for this book. ix

Contents 1 Introduction............................................... 1 Aims of the Book........................................... 1 Classroom Writing Assessment in L2 School Contexts.............. 2 Feedback in Classroom L2 Writing Assessment.................... 4 Outline of the Book.......................................... 6 References................................................. 7 2 Purpose, Theory, and Practice of Classroom L2 Writing Assessment......................................... 9 Introduction................................................ 9 Different Purposes of Classroom Writing Assessment............... 10 Theoretical Tenets of Classroom Assessment...................... 12 Effective Classroom Writing Assessment Practice.................. 13 Assessment as Integral to Teaching and Learning: Aligning Instruction with Assessment......................... 14 Classroom Assessment as Formative: Importance of the Writing Process...................................... 14 Classroom Assessment Informed by Constructivist and Sociocultural Theories: Teacher Scaffolding and Role of Feedback...................................... 15 Classroom Assessment as Shared Responsibility Between Teacher and Learners: Teacher and Student Roles........ 16 Quality Feedback as Central to Classroom Assessment: Mechanisms for Delivering Feedback......................... 16 Classroom Assessment as Sensitive to Learner Motivation: The Place of Scores in Classroom Writing Assessment............ 20 Complementarity of AoL and AfL/AaL........................ 20 Conclusion................................................ 22 References................................................. 23 xi

xii Contents 3 Assessment for Learning in the L2 Writing Classroom........... 25 Introduction................................................ 25 What Does Assessment for Learning Entail?...................... 26 Insights from Assessment for Learning Research in Writing Classrooms....................................... 27 AfL and Implementation Issues for L2 School Writing.............. 30 Teacher Factor............................................ 31 Student Factor............................................ 31 School and System Factors.................................. 32 Assessment for Learning for L2 School Writing: Pedagogical Principles....................................... 33 Pre-writing Instructional Scaffolding.......................... 33 Involving Students in Self /Peer Assessment and Self-Reflection........................................ 34 Teachers Providing Descriptive, Diagnostic Feedback............. 34 Creating a Supportive Classroom Culture...................... 35 Disengaging Scores from Feedback........................... 36 Conclusion................................................ 36 References................................................. 37 4 Assessment as Learning in the L2 Writing Classroom............ 41 Introduction................................................ 41 Theoretical Foundations of Assessment as Learning................ 42 Assessment as Learning Strategies in the Writing Classroom......... 43 Establishing Learning Goals and Success Criteria................ 43 Encouraging Students to Set Personal Learning Goals............. 44 Engaging Students Actively as Learning Resources for One Another.......................................... 45 Empowering Students to Develop Ownership of Their Writing.......................................... 46 Research on Assessment as Learning in Writing................... 48 Conclusion................................................ 49 References................................................. 50 5 Perspectives on Feedback in L2 Writing........................ 53 Introduction................................................ 53 Theoretical Perspectives on Feedback in L2 Writing................ 54 Feedback as a Form of Mediation that Promotes Assessment for Learning...................................... 55 Implementing Effective Feedback Practices in L2 Writing........... 57 Types of Feedback.......................................... 58 Teacher Feedback......................................... 58 Peer Feedback............................................ 59 Technology-Enhanced Feedback............................. 60 Conclusion................................................ 61 References................................................. 61

Contents xiii 6 Teacher Feedback in L2 Writing.............................. 65 Introduction................................................ 65 Salient Findings from Research on Teacher Feedback in L2 Writing............................................... 65 Focuses of Teacher Feedback................................ 66 Written Corrective Feedback (WCF).......................... 66 Written Commentary...................................... 70 Oral Feedback............................................ 71 Research-Practice Divide in Teacher Feedback in L2 School Contexts............................................ 72 Incongruity Between Teachers Written Feedback and Recommended Principles................................ 72 Factors Accounting for the Research-Practice Divide............. 73 Context and Teacher Feedback................................. 74 Guiding Principles for Effective Teacher Feedback................. 75 Less Is More............................................. 75 Respond to Errors Selectively................................ 76 Use Feedback to Diagnose Strengths and Weaknesses............. 76 Adopt a Balanced Approach................................. 76 Be Concrete and Constructive................................ 77 Give Individualized Feedback................................ 77 Use Feedback to Encourage and Motivate Learners............... 77 Use Feedback to Integrate Teaching, Learning, and Assessment........................................... 78 Conclusion................................................ 78 References................................................. 79 7 Peer Feedback in L2 Writing................................. 83 Introduction................................................ 83 Theoretical Perspectives on Peer Feedback in Classroom L2 Classroom Writing Assessment.............................. 84 FAQs About Peer Feedback: Research Insights and Implications for Classroom Practice....................................... 85 Why Peer Feedback? Is Not Teacher/Self-Feedback Sufficient?..... 85 Does Peer Feedback Suit Older and More Proficient L2 Learners and Those from More Congenial Cultural Contexts?.............. 86 What Is the Role of Peer Feedback Training?................... 87 In the Same Class, Why Does Peer Feedback Benefit Some Students but Not the Others?........................... 87 In Contexts Where Students Share the Same L1, What Language Should They Use During Peer Feedback?......... 88 Can Technology Enhance Peer Feedback?...................... 89 Preparing for Peer Feedback: Tips for Teachers.................... 90 Explain the Purpose of Peer Feedback......................... 90 Let Students Share Their Experience and Concerns, as well as Ask Questions.................................... 90

xiv Contents Create a Supportive and Secure Learning Environment............ 91 Provide Motivation and Establish Goals of Learning for Each Peer Feedback Activity.............................. 91 Choose the Most Appropriate Mode(s) of Peer Feedback.......... 92 Use Peer Feedback Sheets, Where Appropriate.................. 92 Differentiated Peer Feedback to Suit Individual Student Needs...... 94 Grouping of Students...................................... 94 Frequency of the Peer Feedback Activity....................... 95 Integrate Peer Feedback with Other Language Activities........... 95 Conduct Peer Feedback Training............................. 96 Give Students Different Focuses for Peer Feedback at Different Stages of the Writing Process...................... 96 Use Teacher Feedback to Model and Supplement Peer Feedback............................................ 96 Provide Opportunities for Students to Incorporate Self- Feedback/Assessment into Peer Feedback.................. 97 Student and Teacher Roles in Peer Feedback.................... 97 Decide Whether or Not to Assess/Score Peer Feedback............ 98 Conclusion................................................ 98 References................................................. 99 8 Portfolios in Classroom L2 Writing Assessment................. 105 Introduction................................................ 105 Features of Portfolio Assessment............................... 106 Two Types of Writing Portfolios for L2 School Contexts............ 108 Writing Portfolios and Dual Assessment Purposes.................. 110 Realizing Assessment for/as Learning in Portfolio-Based Writing Classrooms....................................... 110 Assessment of Learning in Portfolio-Based Writing Classrooms....................................... 111 The Portfolio Process and Feedback in Portfolio-Based Writing Classrooms......................................... 113 Before Writing: Where I Am Going........................... 113 During Writing: How I Am Going............................ 114 After Writing: Where to Next................................ 114 Four Levels of Feedback in Portfolio-Based Writing Classrooms....................................... 116 Evaluating Writing Portfolios as a Pedagogical and Assessment Tool for Classroom Assessment................... 117 Conclusion................................................ 119 References................................................. 120

Contents xv 9 Technology in Classroom L2 Writing Assessment and Feedback.............................................. 123 Introduction................................................ 123 Technology-Enhanced Tasks for Classroom Writing Assessment...... 124 Digital Storytelling........................................ 124 Blog-Based Writing....................................... 127 Collaborative Writing on Wikis.............................. 128 Technology and Teacher Evaluation of Student Writing............. 129 Automated Writing Evaluation............................... 129 Screencast Feedback....................................... 131 Technology in Self- and Peer Evaluation......................... 132 Microsoft Word Tools for Spelling, Grammar, and Vocabulary...... 132 Concordancing........................................... 133 Other Online Tools for Self /Peer Evaluation................... 134 The Writing eplatform: A Hong Kong Example that Puts Students at the Center of Learning..................................... 135 Features of Writing eplatform............................... 136 Potential of Writing eplatform for Promoting AfL/AaL............ 141 Conclusion................................................ 142 References................................................. 143 10 Classroom Assessment Literacy for L2 Writing Teachers......... 147 Introduction................................................ 147 Teacher Assessment Literacy.................................. 148 Classroom Assessment Literacy for Writing Teachers............... 149 Knowledge Base of Writing Teacher Classroom Assessment Literacy....................................... 150 Feedback Literacy as a Key Component of Classroom Writing Assessment Literacy................................ 150 Research on L2 Teachers Classroom Writing Assessment Literacy Development........................................ 151 Future Directions........................................... 153 Conclusion................................................ 154 References................................................. 155 Erratum....................................................... E1

About the Author Icy Lee is a professor in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at the Faculty of Education of the Chinese University of Hong Kong. Her main research interests include classroom assessment, feedback, and teacher education in L2 writing. xvii

List of Examples Example 2.1 Example 2.2 Example 2.3 Example 2.4 Example 2.5 Example 2.6 Example 2.7 Example 2.8 Example 3.1 Example 4.1 Example 4.2 Example 4.3 Example 4.4 Example 6.1 Example 7.1 Example 7.2 Example 7.3 Example 8.1 Example 8.2 Example 8.3 Example 8.4 Example 8.5 What Makes a Good Recount A Feedback Form for Offering Descriptive Feedback for the Recount Genre A Feedback Form that Contains a Rating Scale for the Recount Genre A Scoring Rubric for the Recount Genre A Scoring Rubric with a Remarks Column for the Recount Genre A Feedback Form with Can Do Descriptors An Error Ratio Analysis Sheet An Error Log Genre-Specific Goals for Story Writing Learning Goals and Success Criteria for Biography A Student s Personal Learning Goals for Story Writing Purposeful Dialogue Between Student Writer and Peer Assessor Student Learning Log Written Corrective Feedback Strategies An Open-Ended Peer Feedback Sheet A Peer Feedback Rating Scale A Peer Feedback Rating Scale with Space for Open-Ended Comments Writing Portfolios Instructions for Students A Portfolio Structure for L2 School Students Writing Portfolio Evaluation Guidelines The Portfolio Process in the Multiple-Draft Writing Classroom The Portfolio Process in the Single-Draft Writing Classroom xix

xx List of Examples Example 9.1 Digital Storytelling Evaluation Form Example 9.2 elab of the Writing eplatform Example 9.3 Instant Feedback on Problematic Texts Example 9.4 etutor and Word Neighbors Example 9.5 etutor Example 9.6 Word Neighbors Example 9.7 Word Tag Example 9.8 Vocab-Profile Example 9.9 Useful Words for the Writing Topic An Enjoyable Trip Example 9.10 Search Results of the Word Aspect The original version of this book was revised. An erratum to this book can be found at https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-3924-9_11