CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEWS, CONCEPTS AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK In this chapter, the literary reviews, concepts and theoretical framework will be presented, they are as follows: 2.1 Literature Reviews Literature reviews are critical analyses of literature. It is very important since it gives contribution especially to this study. There were types of source which relevant to the topic of study that being reviewed in this literature review. Those sources have been done by some previous students of the English Department, faculty of Arts, Udayana University, with different scopes and perspectives. Those studies were as follows: First, A Syntactic Analysis of Copulative Verbs in the Novel The Secret in the Old Attic by Caroline Keene. It was written by Megawati in 2007. The aims of her study were to identify the types of copulative verbs and to analyze the syntactic structure of sentences bearing copulative verbs. The data source was taken from the novel the Secret of in the Old Attic (1944). The theories applied to answer the problems use the theories proposed by Huddleston (1998), Quirk and Greenbaum (1976), House and Harman (1950) and also theory proposed by Brown and Miller (1991). The results of her study showed that sentences bearing copulative verb form third syntactic structure. Compared to the first literature, the difference was in the form of topic in which it focused on the types copulative 8
9 verb and the structure of sentences bearing copulative verbs; while, this study talked about deverbal adjectives which focused on participle ing and participle ed in the sentences. However, her study is relevant to this study since some sentences found in this study are in the form of copulative. Second, Morpheme and Their Arrangement in Forming Adjective by Gaudiamofa (2009). The aims of her study were to identify the types and function of morphological process in forming adjective. The data source was taken from the novel entitled A Tale of two Cities by Charles Dicken. The theories applied to answer the problems use the theories proposed by Katamba, Spencer, and Bauer. Moreover, the results of her study showed that there are two different types of morphological processes in forming adjective such as inflectional and derivational. In addition, there are two functions of morphological processes in forming adjectives. Both of them are derivational and inflectional function. Compared to the second literature, the difference can be shown. The difference was in the form of topic. It dealt with morpheme and their arrangements in forming adjectives. While this study dealt with the forms of deverbal adjectives and structure of the sentences containing deverbal adjectives focused on participle ing and participle ed. However, her study is relevant to this study since both of these studies talked about the same class word, adjective. Third, The Morphosyntactic of Suffixes al, -able and some in Obama s Biography by Pratiwi (2012). The aims of her study were to analyze the morphosyntactic process of suffixes al, able and some and the function of derived word in sentence structure. The data source was taken from the biography
10 entitled Obama From Promise to Power (2007). The problem was identifying the morphosyntactic processes in suffixes al, able and some and analyzing the function of the derived word in sentence structure. In answering those problems, the theory proposed by Bauer (1983) and Brown (1991) were used. Here, the results of her study showed that the morphosyntactic process of suffix al, -able, and some is derivational process since those three suffixes can change the word class and the meaning of the derived word. While, derived word is functioned as noun modifier and predicative adjective. Compared to the third literature, the difference can be shown. The difference was in the form of data source in which it focused on suffixes al, able and some; while, this study talked about deverbal adjectives which focused on participle ing and participle ed. However, her study is relevant to this study since the topic of her study is exactly the same, morphosyntax. There were also two international journals used to support this study. These two international journals will be expected to give contribution for this study. First, The Moprhosyntax of Halkomelem Lexical Suffixes, Vol. 69, No. 4 (October 2003), 345-356 by Gerdts. It is an international journal of American linguistics. It focused on three combinations of lexical suffixes with other suffixes such as applicative, causative, and reflexive. The data source was taken from the dialect of Halkomelem, one of twenty-three Salishan languages in which it spoken in southwestern British Columbia in the vicinity of Vancouver and on the east cost of Vancouver Island. The result of this study showed that the lexical suffixes are
11 not merely modifiers occupying non-argument positions. It functions exactly like compounding noun incorporation. Compared to her study that focused on analyzing three combinations of lexical suffixes with applicative, causative, and reflexive, this study focused on the forms and structure of deverbal adjectives containing participle ing and participle ed in sentences. It is shown that her study is clearly different from this study. Second, Morphosyntax of Balinese Reciprocal Constructions, Vol. 6, No. 3 2014 1948-5425 is an international journal of linguistics focused on analyzing the types and morphological forms of verbs used in Balinese reciprocal constructions. It was written by Kardana and Satyawati (2014). The data source was taken from Balinese speaking informants that live in Bali. The result of this study showed that reciprocal construction in Balinese can be divided into lexical, morphological, and syntactic reciprocal. Balinese, however, has some verbs in which lexically mean reciprocal. Hence, the constructions using such the verbs called lexical reciprocal. Then, morphological reciprocal is a construction that means reciprocal when the verbs have particular morphological process (affixation and or reduplication). Meanwhile, syntactic reciprocal is a construction that mean reciprocal if it has a syntactic element saling. Compared to their study that focused on analyzing the types and morphological forms of verbs used in Balinese reciprocal constructions, this study focused on the forms and structure of deverbal adjectives containing participle ing and participle ed in sentences.
12 2.2 Concepts In order to get the comprehensive understanding, it is important to discuss several concepts that are relevant to the topic. A concept means the basic theory of existing ideas. These concepts are applicable in dealing with the topic in this study, as in the following: 2.2.1 Morphology Morphology is defined as the study of word-formation and word-structure. Bauer (1983:13), stated that morphology deals with the internal structure of wordforms. Similar with Katamba and Stonham (2006: 3) which stated that morphology is the internal structure of words. According to Huddleston (1988:1), morphology deals with the form of words. Another definition is proposed by Lieber (2009:15), Morphology is defined as the study of word formation, including the ways new words are coined in the languages of the world, and the way forms of words are varied depending on how they are used in sentences. In general term, morphology is the way how the words are formed. 2.2.2 Affixes Affixes are types of bound morpheme, which only occur when attached to another morpheme or word. Hence, affixes cannot be stand alone as independent word. There are three forms of affixes: prefix, infix and suffix. These three forms are classified according to their position: prefixes attached before words or in front of a new word, such as a root, a stem, or a base. Infixes are inserted inside
13 into the root itself. Infixes are common in some languages. However infixing is rare in English (Katamba and Stonham, 2006: 44). 2.2.3 Deverbal In general, deverbal means a word derived by morphological process from a verb. It is a verb that has been converted to a noun or an adjective by the addition of an appropriate suffix. There are many words belonging to deverbal. However, deverbal is merely categorized into two forms. It can be in the form of deverbal noun or deverbal adjectives. Both of them have clearly different meaning and function. Deverbal noun is, other kinds of nouns derived by morphological process from a verb and behave grammatically purely as nouns, not as verbs. It may include ing form. While, deverbal adjectives are adjectives derived from a verb. 2.2.4 Adjective Adjective is a part of word that modifies a noun. According to Azar (1993: 376), The word modify means change a little. Here, adjective means to give a little different meaning to a noun. The occurrence of adjective is to enhance the meaning of words. Furthermore, an adjective is neither singular nor plural. In this term, Huddleston (1988: 108) also stated that adjective is applied to grammatically distinct word class in a language. It is related to size, color, age and evaluation (good, bad, etc.) Whereas, it is generally accepted that all languages
14 distinguish grammatically between nouns and verbs, not all languages have a distinct adjective class. Similar with Quirk, et al. (1985: 402) which mentioned four criteria of adjective: (1) adjective freely occurs in attributive function, they premodify a noun, appearing between the determiner and the head of a noun phrase, (2) they freely occur in predicative function, they can function as subjective complement or objective complement, (3) they can be pre-modified by intensifier very, and (4) they can take the form of degree of comparison in which occur in three parts: absolute, comparative and superlative. 2.2.5 Deverbal adjective In general term, deverbal adjective is a word derived by morphological process from a verb. It is a verb that has been converted to an adjective. It must be done through morphological processes. The operations of morphology are traditionally divided into two types namely inflection and derivation. In relation to this, deverbal adjective is formed by derivational process in which it is used to derive new lexical items. It is categorized as derivational process because deverbal adjective is a process of deriving word from verb into adjective. For example: the word invite is categorized as a verb. Then, the verb invite becomes an adjective inviting with additional participle suffix ing. Here, the additional participle ing changes the grammatical category of the base from verb invite into an adjective inviting.
15 2.3 Theoretical Frameworks The theory is a very important means to apply whenever a problem is scientifically examined. If the theory is not applied, the problem cannot be analyzed scientifically. The theory of morphology by Bauer (1983) in his book entitled English Word-Formation and Huddleston and Pullum (2005) in his book entitled A Student s Introduction to English Grammar were used in this study. The two main theories expected to solve the problems that occur in this study. The theory from Bauer explains about the word formation that form deverbal adjectives. Meanwhile, the Huddleston s theory explains about structure of phrasal and clausal levels containing deverbal adjectives. Then, from those structures, it will be sorted to their function. 2.3.1 Derivational Process of Deverbal adjectives In English, there are various kinds of deverbal adjectives. All of them must be formed through morphological processes. The operations of morphology are traditionally divided into two types namely inflection and derivation. Meanwhile, one of the keys of forming deverbal adjectives is derivation. Derivation is primarily about forming new lexical items or constructing words. It may change the meaning of the base to which they attached and changes the word-class that a base belongs to. Deverbal adjectives is categorized into class changing derivation since deverbal adjectives changes a verb class into an adjective class. It is obvious that the meaning of deverbal adjectives can be changed into negative form by adding prefixes, as in unexhausted. Hence, deverbal adjectives can be in the form
16 of both class maintaining derivational prefixes and class changing derivational suffixes. 2.3.1.1 Class Maintaining Derivational Prefixes There are four prefixes used to form deverbal adjectives. All of them are: Un- means not or the opposite of. This prefix changes the word class and it also can change the class maintaining. For example: unpaved. In- means not or lacking of supportable. The example of deverbal adjectives is incomplete. Ir- also means not or the opposite of. The deverbal adjectives, e.g. irresistible. Dis- means the opposite of. This prefix can be used with verbs. The example of the deverbal adjectives is disabled. 2.3.1.2 Class Changing Derivational Suffixes There are five suffixes used to form deverbal adjectives. The suffixes are: able this is the most productive suffix in this group. It forms adjectives from transitive verbs. It is sometimes variant of suffix ible. It is used to mean can do something to
17 and express passive meaning e.g. lovable which means easy to love. ive It performs toward a special action. This means to show expression of emotion. For example: supportive and demonstrative. ant/ ent these two suffixes mean someone of something that does something. For example: expectant and repellent. ing this form is related to form of the present participle of verbs. For example, tiring. (Quirk, et al.,1985: 413) ed Unlike participle ing, participle ed forms regular past participle of verbs e.g. bored. (Quirk, et al.,1985: 413) 2.3.2 Constituent Structure In order to state general rules about the construction of sentences, it is necessary to refer to units smaller than the sentence itself. Those which commonly referred to the term clause, phrase, word and morpheme are parts of units. In English, the relation between one unit and another unit of which it is a part is constituency (Quirk, et al. 1985: 38). Constituent is each of the component part of sentence and describes them grammatically. Constituent is different from single word since it has different distribution, construction, and occurrence. The information about constituent structure can be presented in a diagram form as shown in:
18 Clause Subject: NP Predicate: VP Head: Predicator: Object: N V NP Jane Det bought some N flowers The constituent structure analysis identifies all the syntactic units in the sentence. They can be presented through the tree diagram. Those constituents can be described according to their categories. More precisely, it can be categorized into their syntactic classes. Jane and flowers belong to the category of noun (N), the word some belongs to the determinative (Det) and bought belongs to the verb (V). The classification of the larger units is for the most part derivative from that of the words. According to Huddleston (1988:8), Jane and some flowers are noun phrase because they each have a noun as their major or head element, and similarly bought is classified as a verb phrase because bought can be taken as the head element. Finally, the top most unit, the sentence itself, can be classified as the clause.
19 In addition to assigning the units to classes, we will give an analysis in terms of syntactic functions. Syntactic functions make a very obvious contribution to the meaning. In diagram above, Jane functions as the subject of the clause. While, bought some flowers is predicate ; within the VP that forms the predicate, some flowers is an object and bought is predicator. Huddleston and Pullum (2005: 63) stated that the two major elements in the clause are called subject and predicate. Meanwhile, predicator is used for the head of the VP. 2.3.3 Phrase Structure Huddleston and Pullum (2005: 13), defined a phrase as containing more than one word. However, in analyzing deverbal adjectives containing participle ing and ed, it is important to understand the structure of the phrase. More specifically, deverbal adjectives are analyzed in the form of noun phrase. It is because the positions of the deverbal adjectives occur before the noun as a modifier. 2.3.3.1 Noun Phrase According to Huddleston and Pullum (2005:82), there are two properties of noun phrases: function and form. These two properties can be described as follows:
20 (a) Function The main functions in which NPs occur are these four: i. In clause structure: Subject Object Predicative complement A student helped us. They elected a student. She is a student. ii. In PP Structure: Complement We were talking [to a student] (b) Form A noun phrase consists of noun serving as head word and (possibly) various accompanying dependents. Dependents in the structure of the noun phrase are determiners (a kind of dependent found in NP structure only), complements (have to be licensed by the head noun) and modifiers (the default type of dependent which can occur in the form of pre-modifier and post modifier). i. Determiners the news, a pear, some cheese ii. Complements iii. Modifiers the loss of blood, a ban on smoking a young woman, a friend from Boston Furthermore, there is also unit intermediate between the noun phrase and the noun which is called a nominal. This term is about some elements that are built up NP. A NP may only larger
21 than a single noun, but smaller than full NP. To consider this term, it can be illustrated as shown in: NP Determiner: Determinative Head: Nominal Modifier: Adj Head: Noun a young woman Here the noun is the head of nominal, and not directly of the NP, but it will often simplify by talking of NPs with various kinds of noun as head. 2.3.4 Clause Structure Huddleston and Pullum (2005:63) stated that all clauses in English have at least two major elements: subject and predicate. In Cats like water, the NP cats is subject and the VP like water is predicate. The predicate represents the referent of the subject. Predicate, therefore, is a more specific term that head when the
22 construction is a clause. Similarly, predicator is used for the head of the VP, i.e. for the verb like. This description can be presented in diagram form as shown in: Clause Subject: NP Predicate: VP Predicator: Object: N V NP N Cats like water Diagram above expresses in graphic form information about the function and category of the various units or constituents. Cats like water belongs to the category clause. The clause is divided into two constituents functioning as subject and predicate. The subject precedes the predicate. The subject takes the form of a noun phrase (NP) and predicate is a verb phrase (VP). The VP contains a predicator and an object. The predicator precedes the object. The predicator is a verb and the object is a noun phrase.