CATEGORIES & FUNCTIONS: BASIC CONCEPTS IN EMPIRICAL GRAMMAR Brett Reynolds brett.reynolds@humber.ca http://english-jack.blogspot.com Thor Heyerdahl: make the data fit the theory Make the data fit the theory (or no clear theory) "A phrase is a group of words which form a grammatical unit." "A phrase does not contain a finite verb. "Phrases are usually classified according to their central word or HEAD. e.g., NOUN PHRASE 1, VERB PHRASE, etc. 1
Empirical grammar Make the theory fit the data Here s the theory Categories and functions are distinct. Both are needed to explain the observed data. Animal categories and functions Categories pig horse dog fish cat mosquito elephant etc. Functions pet pest beast of burden (jument) scavenger game feeder racer etc. 2
Functions of words after linking verbs She became president. (adj.) She became busy. (n.) Are they functioning as adjectives or nouns? Categories Clause NP VP DP AdjP AdvP PP Nominal Noun Verb Adjective Adverb Coordina -tor Determinative Preposition Subordinator Interjection Functions (a partial list) Head Dependent Coordinate Marker Complement Determiner Adjunct Internal complement External complement (subject) Supplement Modifier Predicate complement Object Catenative complement Other* Locative complement Attributive modifier Internal modifier Direct object Indirect object Prepositional complements Clausal complement Appositive modifier Finite clausal complement Non-finite clausal complement 3
Nouns The standard definition of nouns: Nouns refer to people, places, things, ideas, etc. Based on that definition, which transfer is a noun? I make the regular transfer 1 on Mondays. I regularly transfer 2 the money on Mondays. Nouns Which transfer is a noun? I make the regular transfer 1 on Mondays. I regularly transfer 2 the money on Mondays. Syntactic information: Nouns Which transfer is a noun? I make the regular transfer 1 on Mondays. I regularly transfer 2 the money on Mondays. Syntactic information: SVO determinative before nouns (e.g., the, some, this, few, etc.) can put adjectives between the determinative and the noun can t put adverbs between the determinative and the noun 4
Nouns Which transfer is a noun? I make the regular transfer 1 on Mondays. I regularly transfer 2 the money on Mondays. Morphological information: Nouns Which transfer is a noun? I make the regular transfer 1 on Mondays. I regularly transfer 2 the money on Mondays. Morphological information: can make transfer 1 plural (transfers) can make transfer 1 possessive (transfer s) can make transfer 2 past tense (transferred) Defining categories Look not only at meaning, but also at syntax and morphology. 5
Putting data to work to examine a theory Traditional theory: Only nouns may function as subjects. A gerund is a present participle functioning as a noun. Is a gerund a noun? Gerund: A word derived from a verb form which ends in -ing and is used as a noun Their theory says noun is both a category and a function (or use ). Our theory says noun is a category, not a function. Data 1. Driving well is safer than driving too slowly. 2. I hate taking tests. 3. My cat's favorite activity is sleeping. 4. She stopped him from causing any damage. 1. subject & object of the preposition 2. object 3. complement 4. object of the preposition 6
More data Characteristics of nouns: can be plural can be possessive determinative before nouns can put adjectives immediately before the noun can NOT put adverbs immediately before the noun More data Characteristics of nouns: can be plural *Teachings grammar is fun. can be possessive? Teaching s grammar is fun? determinative before nouns *The teaching grammar is fun. can put adjectives immediately before the noun *Regular teaching grammar is fun. can NOT put adverbs immediately before the noun Regularly teaching grammar is fun. Conclusion: Gerunds fail to meet most of the criteria for nouns gerunds are not nouns. 7
Gerunds are verbs There is no good reason to distinguish between gerunds and present participles. Consider: gerunds 1. [Walking the dog] was difficult. 2. Have you thought of [changing the drapes]? 3. I remember [putting them in the drawer]. 4. I found [working out every day] difficult. present participles 1. Those [walking the dog] experienced difficulty. 2. [Changing the drapes], she thought of a great idea. 3. They are [putting them in the drawer]. 4. We saw them [working out every day]. Are nouns used as nouns? Faculty is a noun It has a variety of possible functions Faculty were in agreement. (function: subject) Contact faculty immediately. (function: object) Here s the faculty office. (function: modifier) Teaching grammar is fun. (function: noun?) Do gerunds function as nouns? No. This is Kon-Tiki grammar (AKA begging the question, circular logic) Premise in traditional grammar: only nouns can be subjects gerunds are subjects gerunds must be nouns It s a false premise. Where did it come from? In empirical grammar: various categories can function as subjects 8
Non-noun subjects Bigger is better. After 6:00 doesn t work for me. Whether you do or not makes no difference. Of course, how you go about it affects the outcome. To govern is to choose always on the basis of imperfect information. Various constituents function as subjects. Nothing functions as a noun but a noun. But.. Nouns per se don t function as subjects either Nouns typically function as the head of NPs NPs in turn function as subjects, object, complements, etc. NP (not noun) as subject 9
What s a determiner Traditional grammar has no category for determiners: the, some, few, most, any, every, several, which, etc. Subsumes them under articles adjectives This is a problem: adjectives are optional determiners are often obligatory adjectives can be graded determiners mostly can t adjectives: not part of determiners: part of system of system of number number Adjectives optional; determiners obligatory Adjectives The big house was quiet. The house was quiet. What were your new friends doing? What were your friends doing? Determiners The big house was quiet. *Big house was quiet. What were your new friends doing?? What were new friends doing? Adjectives graded; determiners not Adjectives Many quiet houses lined the lane. Many quieter houses lined the lane. The people are interesting. The people are more interesting. Determiners Many quiet houses lined the street. *Manier quiet houses lined the lane. There are many interesting people. *There are more many interesting people. 10
Adjectives vs. determiners: number Adjectives There are no cold houses. There is one cold house. There are no cold houses. There isn t much cold water. Determiners There are no cold houses. There is one cold house. There are no cold houses. There isn t much cold water. Conclusion: Determiners and adjectives behave differently determiners are not adjectives. So what are they? What s a determiner? Determiners are a kind "of word that come(s) before head nouns in noun phrases. Or a word that comes before and modifies a head noun... Category or function? 11
The Teacher s Grammar: determiners From Cowan, R. (2008) Nouns as determiners It s box. It s the box. It s my box. It s Helen s box. *It s Helen box. *It s chair box. But words can t belong to two categories at once. Functions and categories Determiner is a function. There is a category of words that typically perform this function. Unfortunately: Modern grammars use the same word to refer to both the category and the function. To keep them distinct: Function: determiner (like modifier) Category: determinative (like adjective) 12
Exercise Given the information provided here, try to identify the determinatives in your handout. Another function of determinatives Determinatives also function as modifiers in AdjPs and DPs. 1. He s not [that bright]. [AdjP] 2. It s [all wrong]. [AdjP] 3. I feel [much better]. [AdjP] 4. I ve read [all the] papers. [DP] 5. [The more] experience you have, [DP] [the better] it is for you. [AdjP] 6. Is [this much] water enough? [DP] 7. [A little less] noise, please! [DP] AdjPs vs. VPs Participial VPs are often mistaken for adjectives. Some adjectives look like participial verbs. I have an interesting problem. I have a drinking problem. How can we tell the difference? 13
Characteristics of adjectives typically function both as attributive modifiers and predicate complements Often have corresponding -ly adverbs modifiable by very gradable Characteristics of adjectives typically function both as attributive modifiers and predicate complements I have an interesting problem. (attrib mod) The problem seems interesting. (pred comp) Often have corresponding -ly adverbs interestingly Typically modifiable by very I have a very interesting problem. Typically gradable This is the most interesting problem. Characteristics of adjectives typically function both as attributive modifiers and predicate complements I have a drinking problem. (attrib mod) *The problem seems drinking. (pred comp) Often have corresponding -ly adverbs *drinkingly Typically modifiable by very *I have a very drinking problem. Typically gradable *This is the most drinking problem. 14
AdjPs vs. nouns Nouns functioning as attributive modifiers are often said to be functioning as adjectives. Exercise 2 Coordinators & subordinators Coordinators and subordinators typically function as markers of coordination and subordination. Coordinators include: and, but, or, nor as well as, plus, rather Subordinators are: that, to, whether & if, how, for 15
Coordination Subordination: content clauses Subordination: relative clause 16
Subordination: non-finite clauses Prepositions Much broadened definition of prepositions: As well as transitive prepositions (taking objects) Allow for intransitive prepositions Allow for prepositions taking clausal complements Allow for prepositions taking predicate complements Allow for prepositions taking prepositional complements Prepositions Much broadened definition of prepositions: As well as transitive prepositions (taking objects) She stood before the mirror. Allow for intransitive prepositions She had stood there before. Allow for prepositions taking clausal complements She stood before she crawled. Allow for prepositions taking predicate complements We left him for dead. Allow for prepositions taking prepositional complements He came from around the bend. 17
Exercise 3 Adverbs Everything else But: It shot through the air at nearly the speed of sound. The scarf was silky smooth. 18