<' ' < MlKE HORSLEY AND RICHARD WALKER CENTRAL QUEENSLAND UNIVERSITY.. LIBRARY

<' ' < MlKE HORSLEY AND RICHARD WALKER CENTRAL QUEENSLAND UNIVERSITY.. LIBRARY

Educational institutions copying any part of this book for educational purposes under the Act must be covered by a Copyright Agency Limited (CAL) licence for educational institutions and must have given a remuneration notice to CAL. Licence restrictions must be adhered to. For details of the CAL licence contact: Copyright Agency Limited, Level 15, 233 Castlereagh Street, Sydney, NSW 2000. Telephone: (02) 9394 7600. Facsimile: (02) 9394 7601. Email: info@copyright.com.au National Library of Australia cataloguing-in-publication data Author: Horsley, Mike. Title: Reforming homework: practices, learning and policy I Mike Horsley; Richard Walker. ISBN: 9781420256130 (pbk.) Notes: Includes bibliographical references and index. Subjects: Homework. Other authors/contributors: Walker, Richard. Dewey number: 371.30281 Publisher: Elizabeth Vella Project editor: Debbie Fry Editor: Ingrid De Baets Illustrator: diacri Tech Cover designer: Dimitrios Frangoulis Text designer: Patrick Cannon Permissions clearance: Gabrielle 0' Brien Typeset in Bembo/11 pt by diacritech, Chennai Cover image: Shutterstock/Tania A. Indexer: Mary Russell Printed in Malaysia Internet addresses At the time of printing, the internet addresses appearing in this book were correct. Owing to the dynamic nature of the internet, however, we cannot guarantee that all these addresses will remain correct. Copyright Mike Horsley and Richard Walker 2013 All rights reserved. Except under the conditions described in the Copyright Act 1968 of Australia (the Act) and subsequent amendments, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. First published 2013 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN 15-19 Claremont Street, South Yarra 3141 Visit our website at www.palgravemacmillan.com.au Associated companies and representatives throughout the world.

Contents About the authors Acknowledgments Publisher acknowledgments xiii xiv XV Chapter 1 Introduction to homework 1 Homework debate and controversy 1 Purposes of homework 6 The definition of homework and research into the extent to which homework achieves its stated purposes 9 A new approach to homework 11 Chapter2 Homework and achievement 14 Introduction 14 Research methods used to understand homework 16 Experimental and quasi-experimental research 17 Summary 22 Correlational research 23 Summary 24 General conclusion: experimental and correlational research 25 The Trautwein homework model 25 The homework model: research findings 27 Relevance of the model for homework in other countries 34 The Trautwein model and research: a concluding assessment 35 Time spent on homework and achievement 35 Teacher homework objectives and student achievement 37 Teacher homework objectives, practices, attitudes and student achievement 37 Teacher homework objectives, practices, attitudes and student homework effort and emotions 39

The role oflanguage in human development and human thought 85 The development of self-regulation and metacognition 86 The relationship between human development and learning 87 The zone of actual development and the zone of proximal development 88 A sociocultural approach to motivation 90 Sociocultural theories and the scaffolding oflearning 91 After-school programs and activities 96 The funds-of-knowledge research: Moll and colleagues 100 Relevance of sociocultural theory for understanding homework 101 A sociocultural approach to homework learning, motivation and achievement Introduction 80 Sociocultural theories of learning, thinking and motivation 81 Lev Vygotsky and sociocultural theories 83 The nature and origins of cognitive development 84 80 Chapter4 so 50 51 53 53 55 58 60 63 68 69 74 74 79 Homework and motivation Introduction Definitions and main assumptions underlying motivational theories Overview of important motivational theories Expectancy-value theory Attribution theory Self-efficacy theory Achievement goal theory Self-determination theory of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation Concluding comments Self-regulated learning and perceived responsibility for achievement outcomes Concluding comments Parental involvement and student motivation Concluding comments Chapter 3 Homework quality and student achievement 40 Cooper's meta-analysis 40 Trautwein and colleagues 40 Parental involvement in homework and student achievement 43 Concluding comments 48 viii CONTENTS

CONTENTS ix Culture, cultural practices and homework 102 Homework as enculturation into the practices of disciplines and domains ofknowledge 105 Teacher decisions concerning the nature and purpose of homework tasks 106 Homework and the scaffolding of self-regulated and self-directed learning skills 107 Scaffolding learning through online homework activities 107 Homework study centres and after-school programs for homework assistance 108 Relevance of after-school programs for after-school homework centres 108 Using community and family resources for homework activities 108 The Fifth Dimension activities and homework 109 Homework and motivation 109 Homework and assessment practices 110 Sociocultural theories and homework research 110 Homework support and homework management skills: developing self-directed learning skills 111 Homework study centres and after-school programs for homework assistance Concluding comments 113 118 ChapterS Reforming homework-implications for students 120 Reforming homework context 120 Introduction 120 Student homework strategies, decisions and behaviours 121 Deciding on and securing the right place to do homework 121 Undertaking homework planning 123 Deciding on and accessing appropriate homework assistance 126 Regulating homework and learning from homework 128 Working cooperatively and collaboratively 130 Getting and using feedback 131 Conclusion:A student checklist and summary 133 Chapter6 Reforming homework-implications for teachers Reforming homework context Introduction Reforming teachers' homework practices 135 135 136 137

Reforming homework context 17 5 Introduction 17 6 Reforming homework-implications for online homework support 177 Understanding the different sociocultural practices required of each online homework support system 177 Evaluating the value and accessibility of online homework support-some online support will be more valuable than others 180 Reforming homework-implications for online support 175 ChapterS Introduction 150 Reforming parental homework involvement 151 Differentiating between parental involvement in school generally and parental involvement in children's homework 151 Helping to create the 'right' place for children to do their homework 153 Assisting with children's homework planning 154 Providing the appropriate level of homework involvement and assistance 155 Case study 7.1: Perceptions of homework practiceparental and student voices 157 Case study 7.2: Applying the key questions to three composite homework tasks 163 Promoting student motivation and persistence for homework completion 168 Case study 7. 3: Parents' voices about friction in homework 169 Seeking support from the school system, teachers, principals, the community and other parents 171 Conclusion: A parent checklist and summary 17 3 Reforming homework-implications for parents 149 Reforming homework context 149 Chapter? 137 139 141 142 143 144 146 147 ClarifYing the nature and purpose of homework Planning a homework curriculum Planning for scaffolding for homework tasks and the provision of assistance Developing quality homework tasks Case study 6.1: The quality of homework Planning homework feedback Promoting equity in planning homework Conclusion: A teacher checklist and summary x CONTENTS

CONTENTS xi Aligning the nature and purpose of homework with the efficacy of online homework support 181 Evaluating the exact nature of the scaffolding that online homework support can provide using different technologies and in different disciplines 183 Analysing how online homework support can assist with formative and summative assessment 184 Evaluating the equity dimension of online homework support 185 Case study 8. 1: Pasifika learning centre protocols on the use of online resources for homework completion, study and assignment tasks 188 Conclusion: An online homework support checklist and summary 191 Chapter9 Chapter 10 Reforming homework-implications for equity 193 Reforming homework context 193 Introduction 194 Reforming homework practice to promote equity 195 Evaluating how different homework practices may advantage some students and disadvantage others 195 Auditing the homework practice equity implications of different student and family cultural practices, and different student and family socioeconomic status 197 IdentifYing the alignment of subject domain knowledge to the community funds of knowledge 199 Providing scaffolding and assistance that will overcome socioeconomic and ethnic diversity factors that may lead to disadvantage 200 Providing access to assessment and feedback discourse to families and communities 202 Ensuring homework and homework practices draw on family and community funds of knowledge 202 Case study 9.1: Pasifika after-school homework centres 204 Conclusion: Promoting equity in homework practices 205 Reforming homework-implications for policies 207 Reforming homework context 207 Introduction 208 Reforming homework policies 209 Considering homework as a sociocultural practice that reflects educational, social and community contexts 209 Considering homework as enculturation into disciplinary practices and domains of knowledge 210

References 2 59 fu~ 2n agendas 254 The LeTendre and Akiba study 255 Econometric analysis of Eren and Henderson 256 TALIS-Teaching and Learning International Survey 257 Summary 258 229 229 231 233 233 235 236 237 244 Homework-international comparisons Reforming homework context Introduction PISA and TIMSS PISA TIMSS Differences between PISA and TIMSS PISA and homework TIMSS and homework Analysis using TIMSS and PISA-national competitive Chapter 11 Understanding the importance of the nature and purpose of homework tasks from the learners' perspective 211 Provision of the necessary scaffolding required to support student learning from homework 211 Considering the ways that homework is linked to assessment practices 212 Considering the role of family and community resources in homework practice 213 National homework policies 213 Features of national homework policies 214 Case studies on state and national educational policies that influence the shape and direction of homework practices 216 Case study 10.1: Homework policy and practice in Finland 216 Case study 10.2: NSW government schools: the Department of Education and Training homework policy 218 Case study 10.3: Ontario-Toronto District School Board homework policy 222 Case study 10.4: Homework policy support documents from the USA 225 Conclusion: A policy checklist 227 xii CONTENTS

About the authors Dr Richard Walker Richard Walker is an Associate Professor in the Faculty ofeducation and Social Work at the University of Sydney. He teaches educational psychology at both postgraduate and undergraduate levels and has published a number of articles and book chapters on various aspects oflearning and motivation. Richard has for some time been interested in applying aspects of sociocultural theories, which have their origins in the work of the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky, to issues of learning and motivation. He became interested in the topic of homework through an involvement in after-school homework centres for Polynesian students which had been established by Mike Horsley. Richard and Mike started to develop a sociocultural approach to homework in an earlier publication, but collaboration on this book has allowed them to develop these ideas further. Dr Mike Horsley Mike Horsley is the Director of the Learning Teaching Education Research Centre at Central Queensland University. He is the Vice President of the International Association for Research on Textbooks and Educational Media (IARTEM) and is the lead editor of the IARTEM e:journal. He has written and published widely on research into teaching and learning materials, the learning needs of Pacific Islander students and homework. For almost a decade Mike co-managed Pacific Islander learning and homework centres in western and south-western Sydney, and has advised many schools, teachers and students about the areas ofhomework and teaching and learning materials. Managing after-school homework centres, often three nights a week, helped Mike and Richard conduct research on homework and refine the sociocultural approach to homework and learning that is presented in Riforming Homework. xiii