Contents Foreword VII Chapter 1 Introduction - Elements of English 1 001 On grammar 1 002 The character of English 3 002/1 Who speaks English? 3 002/2 Where English comes from 3 002/3 Language varieties 5 002/4 Regional variants of English and standard languages 8 003 Some basic concepts in language study 14 003/1 Some general fields of language 14 003/2 Basic grammatical categories 17 003/3 Sentence functions 19 003/4 Sentence types and sentence patterns 24 Chapter 2 Nouns 27 2.1 Basic features: introduction 27 004 Main grammatical features 27 004/1 Nouns and noun phrases 27 004/2 Syntactic roles of noun phrases 28 004/3 Morphological invariance 29 004/4 Number: singular and plural 29 004/5 Countability 30 004/6 The genitive 31 005 Main semantic features 32 005/1 Common and proper nouns 32 005/2 Common nouns: concrete or abstract 33 005/3 Common nouns: individual, mass, collective, and pair nouns 33 2.2 From singular to plural 34 006 Regular plural formation 34 006/1 Regular changes in spelling and pronunciation 34 006/2 Special cases 34 007 Irregular plural formation 35 007/1 Vowel change 35 007/2 Plurals in -en/-ence 36 007/3 Singular-plurals 36 Bibliografische Informationen http://d-nb.info/999294997 digitalisiert durch
X Contents 007/4 Plural-singulars 37 007/5 Greek and Latin plurals 37 007/6 Modern loan-word plurals 38 008 Number, countability and meaning: details of use 39 008/1 Individual nouns 39 008/2 Mass nouns 39 008/3 Collective nouns 41 008/4 Pair nouns 43 008/5 Quantifying non-count nouns 43 008/6 Mass, collective and pair nouns with different German equivalents 45 008/7 Summary: common nouns with different meanings in singular and plural 45 2.3 The genitive 46 009 The s-genitive: form and syntax 46 009/1 Spelling 46 009/2 Pronunciation 47 009/3 Syntax 47 010 The of-genitive: form and syntax 49 010/1 As a postmodifying prepositional phrase 49 010/2 As part of a premodifying expression of quantity 49 010/3 The "double genitive" 49 011 The genitive in general use 50 011/1 Animate nouns: s-genitive 50 011/2 Inanimate nouns: of-genitive 51 012 Some specific uses of the genitive 52 012/1 Quantifying expressions 52 012/2 Constitutive meaning 53 012/3 The pronoun s-genitive with localities 55 012/4 Genitives with verb-related nouns 57 012/5 Beyond the genitive: the collocational nature of "prepositional of with verb-related nouns 58 012/6 The compound noun in genitive meaning 58 013 Summary: s-genitive and of-genitive in contrast 58 013/1 The s-genitive in general use; exceptions 58 013/2 The of-genitive in general use; exceptions 59 2.4 Noun forms 59 014 Common suffixes 60 014/1 Describing a state, condition or characteristic 60 014/2 Describing an action or state, or the result of one 60 014/3 Describing a person/thing carrying out an action, or affected by one 60
Contents XI 014/4 Describing fields of study, belief, professional activity or behaviour 61 014/5 Suffixes with mixed reference 61 015 Prefixes 62 015/1 Opposites 62 015/2 Describing place, order, size and rank 62 015/3 Describing self and others 62 015/4 Referring to number and quantity 62 015/5 Meaning "badly/wrongly" 62 016 Compound nouns 63 016/1 Two separate nouns 63 016/2 The "hyphen" question 63 016/3 Two nouns as one 64 016/4 Singular in the first element 64 016/5 Other types of compound noun 64 016/6 Pronunciation: stress 66 016/7 Plural forms 68 017 Compound nouns: summary and points of difficulty 68 017/1 Type and spelling 68 017/2 Pronunciation: stress 69 018 Some other processes of noun formation 69 018/1 Old forms into new 70 018/2 Old words, new meanings 71 018/3 New words, new meanings 71 Chapter 3 Pronouns, Determiners and Quantifiers 73 3.1 Pronouns 73 019 Main grammatical features 73 020 Pronoun types 74 020/1 Personal pronouns 74 020/2 Possessives 77 020/3 Reflexive pronouns: self and others 79 020/4 Reflexive pronouns: further points of usage 79 020/5 Pronoun table (summary) 81 020/6 Reflexives, possessives and personal pronouns: summary of important points and common difficulties 81 020/7 Other pronoun types 82 3.2 Determiners 84 021 Main grammatical and semantic features 84 022 Determiner types 84 022/1 The indefinite article 84
XII Contents 022/2 The definite article 87 022/3 The zero article 88 022/4 The definite article with names 95 022/5 The definite article in other 'borderline' uses 98 022/6 Demonstrative determiners 101 3.3 Quantifiers 108 023 Main grammatical and semantic features 108 024 Distributives 109 024/1 all 109 024/2 both 114 024/3 every 116 024/4 each 117 024/5 either 119 024/6 Negative distributives: not + either/neither/nor 121 024/7 Other negative distributives 125 025 Indefinite quantifiers 131 025/1 some 132 025/2 any 133 025/3 much/many/a lot of 138 025/4 little/few/a little/a few/several 139 025/5 more/most, less/least, fewer/fewest 140 Chapter 4 Adjectives 141 026 Basic features 141 027 The syntax of adjectives 142 027/1 Position and function 142 027/2 The adjective phrase 142 028 Adjective meaning and adjective grammar 143 028/1 Common semantic categories 143 028/2 Some special sub-types 144 028/3 Adjective position: attributive only 145 028/4 Adjective position: predicative only 146 028/5 Clause reduction 147 028/6 Attributive postmodification 148 028/7 Attributive premodification 149 028/8 Gradable and non-gradable adjectives 151 028/9 Proper adjectives 151 029 Adjective forms 151 029/1 Affixes 152 029/2 Other words in adjective functions 154
Contents XIII 029/3 Compound adjectives 157 030 Aspects of usage 159 030/1 Adjectives as nouns 159 030/2 Some special cases 163 030/3 Adjectival complements 164 031 Comparison 166 031/1 Types of comparison 166 031/2 Forming the comparative and superlative 167 031/3 Use of comparative and superlative 170 031/4 Equative comparison 171 031/5 Deficit and surplus comparatives compared 171 031/6 Comparative constructions and their syntax 173 031/7 Superlatives 179 031/8 Non-adjective comparison 180 031/9 Summary of different comparative types and structures 186 Chapter 5 Adverbs 188 032 Basic features 188 033 Adverb meaning 189 033/1 Semantic types 190 033/2 The adverb phrase and its functions 193 033/3 Adverb position: general 196 033/4 Adverb position according to meaning 197 033/5 Position of other adverbials 205 033/6 Usage: some special cases 209 034 Adverb forms 214 034/1 Derived adverbs 214 034/2 Non-derived adverbs and other special groups 215 034/3 Comparison of adverbs 218 Chapter 6 Prepositions 221 035 Basic features 221 036 Individual prepositions and their meanings 222 036/1 Prepositions of place and direction 222 036/2 Prepositions of time 237 036/3 Prepositions of mixed reference 243 Chapter 7 Conjunctions 246 037 Basic features 246 038 Individual conjunctions and their meanings 247 038/1 Conjunctions expressing cause (reason) 247
XIV Contents 038/2 Conjunctions expressing time relations 248 038/3 Conjunctions expressing conditions 251 038/4 Conjunctions expressing addition 254 038/5 Contrast and contradiction with subordinating conjunctions 258 038/6 Mixed conjunctions 259 039 Conjunction clauses and sentence syntax 264 039/1 Clauses as adverbials 265 039/2 Clauses as subjects, objects and complements 266 039/3 Adverbs as subordinators instead of conjunctions 267 039/4 Further subordination 268 039/5 Clause reduction to indicate function 269 039/6 Clauses as parts of phrases 269 039/7 Comma rules 272 Chapter 8 Verbs: Basic Features, Syntax and Forms 273 040 Basic features 273 040/1 The verb phrase 273 040/2 Verb morphology 274 041 Syntax: the verb in the sentence 285 041/1 The verb and its complementation 285 041/2 The verb and basic sentence operations 287 041/3 Verbal action types (modes of occurrence) 298 042 Forms of verbs 300 042/1 Verb formation 300 042/2 Particle verbs 301 042/3 Formation of non-finite verbs 307 042/4 Forming progressive and perfect 309 042/5 Forming the passive 309 Chapter 9 Verbs: The Present and Past Tenses 311 043 Overview 311 044 The primary non-perfect tenses and their aspects 312 044/1 The general meaning of the aspects 312 044/2 The present tense and its aspects 318 044/3 The past tense: introduction 327 044/4 The past tense: forms 327 044/5 The past tense: main interplay of aspects 334 044/6 The past tense: further points on aspect usage 336 Chapter 10 Verbs: The Perfect Tenses 340 045 Introduction 340
Contents XV 046 The present perfect 341 046/1 Time orientation and general meaning 341 046/2 Time orientation, adverbials, and tense 342 046/3 Time-span perfects: the continuative 343 046/4 Time-span perfects: the experiential 348 046/5 Non-time-span perfects: the resultative 352 046/6 The present perfect: concluding points and summary 360 047 The past perfect 364 047/1 Time orientation and general meaning 364 047/2 The past perfect as present-perfect-in-the-past 364 047/3 The past perfect as past-tense-in-the-past (= pre-past use) 366 047/4 Some further points of note 368 Chapter 11 Verbs: Future and Conditional Meaning, Indirect Speech, the Passive 371 11.1 Future meaning 371 048 Introduction 371 049 The forms of future reference 372 049/1 The modal future: will 372 049/2 The modal future: to be going to 377 049/3 The modal future: shall 379 049/4 The non-modal future: arrangements 380 049/5 Past and perfect meanings with future reference 382 049/6 The basics of future meaning - overview 385 11.2 Conditional meaning 386 050 Introduction 386 051 Conditional meaning and conditional forms 387 051/1 Concrete points on form 387 051/2 Conditional sentences with speculative meaning 388 051/3 Conditional sentences with non-speculative modal meaning 395 051/4 False conditionals 398 051/5 Speculative conditions: other types and variants 401 113 Indirect (reported) speech 405 052 Introduction: direct and indirect speech 405 05? The forms of indirect speech 406 053/1 Tense regulation in indirect speech 407 053/2 Other changes in indirect speech 410 053/3 Reporting verbs in indirect speech 413 053/4 Questions in indirect speech 416 053/5 Commands in indirect speech 420
XVI Contents 11.4 The passive voice 422 054 Introduction: active and passive voice 422 055 Forming and using the passive 423 055/1 Basic features of active-passive conversion 423 055/2 Transitive verb types and their relation to the passive 425 055/3 Further points on the passive 426 Chapter 12 Verbs: Modal Verbs 430 056 Modal verbs: types and forms 430 056/1 Primary modals 430 056/2 Secondary modals 432 057 Modal meanings 433 057/1 Ability/capability 433 057/2 Speculation 437 057/3 Permission 442 057/4 Directives 445 057/5 Other modal usage 456 Chapter 13 Verbs: Non-finite Verbs 459 058 Basic features 459 13.1 The infinitive 459 059 Forms 459 060 Infinitive constructions 460 060/1 The infinitive after verbs 461 060/2 The infinitive after verbs: some special cases 462 060/3 The infinitive after adjectives 463 060/4 Infinitive clauses as shortened relative clauses 467 060/5 Infinitive clauses as appositive postmodifications 472 060/6 Infinitives of purpose 472 060/7 Infinitives in indirect questions and indirect commands 473 060/8 Consecutive infinitives 475 060/9 The perfect, progressive and passive forms of the infinitive 479 060/10 Syntax: sentence functions in and around the infinitive 481 13.2 The gerund 487 061 Form, syntax, general meaning 487 061/1 The subject of a gerund 488 061/2 The gerund clause as subject 489 061/3 Tense, aspect and passive with the gerund 489 062 Gerund constructions 491
Contents XVII 062/1 The gerund after verbs 492 062/2 Catenatives: gerund or infinitive according to meaning 494 062/3 Catenatives: gerund or infinitive according to grammar 497 062/4 Catenatives: gerund or infinitive with little or no difference 498 062/5 The gerund after prepositions 499 062/6 The gerund in noun compounds 501 062/7 The action nominal 501 13.3 The participles 503 063 Form, syntax, general meaning 503 063/1 Uses and functions of participles: an introduction 504 063/2 The syntax of the participle clause 505 063/3 Tense, aspect and passive with participles 506 064 The participles in use 507 064/1 The present participle at sentence level 507 064/2 The present participle at phrase level 515 064/3 The present participle: some borderline cases 519 064/4 The perfect participle 522 064/5 The past participle: introduction 524 064/6 The past participle at sentence level 524 064/7 The past participle at phrase level 529 Chapter 14 Phrase and Clause at Complex Level 532 14.1 The complex phrase 532 065 Introduction 532 066 Postmodification in the noun phrase 532 066/1 The relative clause 534 066/2 The relative clause: other phenomena 540 066/3 Other types of relative postmodification 542 066/4 Appositive postmodification 548 066/5 Genitive postmodification 551 066/6 Multiple postmodification 553 067 Complex adjective and prepositional phrases 557 067/1 The complex adjective phrase 557 067/2 The complex prepositional phrase 561 142 Aspects of the complex sentence 562 068 Forms and functions 562 068/1 Clauses as subject (S) 562 068/2 Clauses as direct object (Od) 563 068/3 Clauses as subject complement (Cs) 565 068/4 Clauses as object complement (Co) 565
XVIII Contents 068/5 Clauses as adverbials (A) 567 068/6 Examples of sentence analysis 572 068/7 Analysing special clause and sentence types 574 Exercises to SAGE ^j utb-mehr-wissen.de