Learning Psychology. NQF Level 2 STUDENT S BOOK. e!vula Training

Learning Psychology NQF Level 2 e!vula Training STUDENT S BOOK

Learning Psychology Student s Book TVET FIRST NQF Level 2 e!vula Training

TVET FIRST Learning Psychology NQF Level 2 Student s Book e!vula Training 2008 Illustrations and design Macmillan South Africa (Pty) Ltd 2008 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright holder or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act, 1978 (as amended). Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable for criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. First published 2008 10 12 14 13 11 09 1 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2 0 Published by Macmillan South Africa (Pty) Ltd Private Bag X19 Northlands, 2116 Gauteng South Africa Typeset in 11 on 13pt Palatino by Boss Repro & Design Studio Cover design by Artwork by Jean Black ISBN 978 1 77030 514 4 e-isbn 9781431021055 WIP 2314M000 It is illegal to photocopy any page of this book without written permission from the publishers. While every effort has been made to trace the copyright holders and obtain copyright permission from them, in some cases this has proved impossible due to logistic and time constraints. Any copyright holder who becomes aware of infringement on our side is invited to contact the publisher. Note: Any reference to Further Education and Training (FET) in this book should be taken to mean Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET). To order any of these books, contact Macmillan Customer Services at: Tel: (011) 731 3300 Fax: (011) 731 3535 E-mail: customerservices@macmillan.co.za

Contents Topic 1: Learning Psychology and approaches to learning... 1 Module 1: The concept and rationale of Learning Psychology... 3 1.1 Defining the concept of Learning Psychology... 3 Definition of learning... 3 Definition of Learning Psychology... 3 1.2 Rationale for including Learning Psychology as part of this course... 6 1.3 The conditions for effective learning... 7 Summative Assessment: Topic 1... 9 Topic 2: Brain structures, functions and cognitive processing... 10 Module 1: The brain structure, its function and brain activity... 12 1.1 The structure of the brain... 12 The hindbrain... 13 The midbrain... 14 The forebrain... 14 Neurons... 17 Left brain versus right brain... 19 1.2 The risk factors that influence brain activity... 21 1.3. The role of timing and its effect on human learning... 22 Windows of opportunity... 22 Module 2: The cognitive processes of the brain and their application... 24 2.1 Cognitive processes... 24 Lower levels of cognition... 25 Higher levels of cognition... 26 Important points about Bloom s taxonomy... 26 2.2 The application of cognitive processes... 27 Module: 3 The meaning and significance of perception in learning... 31 3.1 The meaning of perception... 31 3.2 The effect of perception on learning... 33 3.3 Why perceptual problems exist... 34 3.4 Possible solutions to perceptual problems... 34 Summative Assessment: Topic 2... 35 Topic 3: Personality and temperament traits... 36 Module 1: Personality and different learning styles... 39 1.1 What are personality traits?... 39 1.2 Recognising and describing personality and temperament traits... 40 Effects on learning... 10 Module 2: Individual differences in personality and their effects on learning... 43 2.1 Individual differences in personality traits... 43 The four humours... 43 The Jung-Myers-Briggs typology... 44 2.2 The influence of personality traits on learning... 45

Module 3: The five factors of the basic structure of personality... 48 3.1 Defining the five factors of personality... 48 Openness... 49 Conscientiousness... 49 Extraversion... 49 Agreeableness... 50 Neuroticism... 50 3.2 Recognise and describe personality traits... 50 Implications of the five trait factors on learning... 51 3.3 Choosing a career path based on personality profiles... 53 Career paths suitable to the different personality traits... 54 Summative Assessment: Topic 3... 56 Topic 4: Self-awareness and its effect on learning... 58 Module 1: The concept and nature of the self... 61 1.1 The meaning of self-concept... 61 1.2 The relationship between self-concept and self-confidence... 63 1.3 Enhancing self-confidence in the learner... 65 1.4 Factors and resources that affect self-concept... 67 Module 2: Self-esteem and its influence on learning... 69 2.1 The meaning of self-esteem... 69 2.2 How self-esteem affects learning... 71 2.3 Enhancing the learner s self-esteem... 72 Module 3: Developing self-awareness in the learner... 75 3.1 The meaning of self-awareness... 75 3.2 Methods to enhance self-awareness... 77 3.3 Reflection on methods to develop self-awareness... 79 Module 4: Strategies for self-motivation... 81 4.1 The meaning of self-motivation... 81 4.2 Strategies for self-motivation... 84 a. Develop interest... 84 b. Create challenges... 84 c. Empower learners... 85 d. Encourage self-evaluation... 85 e. Provide organised strategies... 85 f. Work with the imagination... 85 Summative Assessment: Topic 4... 86 Topic 5: The process of learning... 88 Module 1: Perspectives on conditioning in the learning process... 91 Conditioning and types of conditioning... 91 Classical conditioning... 92 Operant Conditioning... 93 How conditioning affects learning... 94

Module 2: Learning through consequences of behaviour... 96 2.1 Operant conditioning and reinforcement... 96 Reinforcement and punishment... 96 Primary and secondary reinforcers... 97 Shaping... 98 2.2 Learning through reinforcement strategies... 99 Module 3: Modelling and informal learning... 101 3.1 Modelling as a means of learning... 101 3.2 Informal learning... 103 3.3 The practical implications of modelling and informal learning... 103 Module 4: The role of e-learning... 105 4.1 The meaning of e-learning... 106 4.2 Requirements and skills needed for e-learning... 107 Requirements for e-learning... 107 Skills needed for e-learning... 109 4.3 Advantages and disadvantages of e-learning... 110 Advantages of e-learning... 110 Disadvantages of e-learning... 113 Summative assessment: Topic 5... 114 Appendix: Portfolio of Evidence Guideline... 117

Topic 1 Learning Psychology and approaches to learning 1

Topic 1 Learning Psychology and approaches to learning Overview During most of their lives, people are engaged in some learning activity or other learning to ride a bicycle or speak a foreign language, to swim, cook or play a new game, to handle a cordless drill, manage a shop or perform a new task at work. For each person a selection of such experiences, especially the universal one of school, is what makes up his idea of what learning involves and what it means to learn or remember or think. Learning occurs throughout the whole range of human activity. But what exactly is learning and how does learning take place? Do people use the same methods, for example, to learn to speak a foreign language as they do to learn to swim? Psychologists and other researchers have attempted to answer these and other questions about learning and the results of this research can be found in many theories of learning. There are many popular theories that attempt to explain what learning is, how it takes place; what memory is and the role it plays; and especially, the functions of the brain during the learning process. When a person learns to ride a bicycle, for example, what should the conditions be in order to learn effectively? What conditions are needed in the classroom situation? Both external conditions (the environment) and internal conditions (the learner s abilities) must be considered in order to make that learning experience successful. The role of the educator will also influence the effectiveness of the learning process. Learning can therefore be seen as a complex, multi-faceted process that needs to be studied carefully. The different aspects necessary for effective learning will be dealt with in this subject. This includes the learner and the environment. The following subject outcomes will be covered in this topic, and students should be able to: Define the concept of Learning Psychology. Understand the rationale for studying Learning Psychology and give their opinion of the necessity of its inclusion in the qualification. Explain the conditions needed for effective learning. Figure 1.1: One kind of learning is when you learn to drive. Learning occurs through the whole range of human activity. 2 Topic 1

Module 1 The concept and rationale of Learning Psychology 1.1 Defining the concept of Learning Psychology It is important to incorporate the subject Learning Psychology in the study of Early Childhood Development since it gives the student the necessary insight into what learning is as well as the theories which underpin learning. Learning Psychology can be seen as a theoretical science that looks at the understanding of learning, the learner and the learning environment. Learning is a vital human function that relies on the acquisition of different types of knowledge. It leads a person to develop new capacities, skills, values, perspectives and preferences. Psychology is the study of various theories about human beings: their mental processes, social behaviour and development and this includes learning. Definition of learning Learning can be defined as any relatively permanent change in behaviour or knowledge resulting from experiences. Another definition by Nieman and Pienaar (2006: 72) is: Learning is regarded as an active, lifelong process of experience and attaching meaning to experiences that eventually changes the individual. This means learning results in a change in the learner s insight, comprehension, behaviour, perception or motivation. This change leads to added knowledge or the ability to do something the learner could not do before (Nieman et al. 2006: 72). Learning begins soon after a child is born. Different forms of learning take place at different stages in a person s life and these range through habituation, conditioning, social learning and cognitive learning. The simplest form of learning is habituation while the most complex form is cognitive learning. Words & Terms Habituation: A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure to it. Also referred to as adaptation as it involves adjusting to new experiences.. Conditioning: Associating a stimulus with a response. Social learning: Learning that occurs when observing the behaviour of others. Cognitive learning: Learning that occurs when human beings receive, process, store and use information Module 1: The concept and rationale of Learning Psychology 3

It is also necessary to distinguish between rote learning and meaningful learning. The first is the acquisition of a single concept, the solution of an artificial problem, or learning of arbitrary associations. Rote learning involves memorisation through repetition without attention reasoning or initial understanding for example, a young child learning the alphabet. The effect of this kind of learning is often short term. The disadvantage of this kind of learning is that few if any connections are made between new information and the knowledge already acquired. Rote learning is often slow and relatively ineffective because it is the repetition of information without attaching any meaning to it. Verbally rehearsing information is sometimes necessary, as in the child learning the alphabet, because it will assist the child in being able to write and spell words later on. It will therefore help with understanding more complicated and meaningful information later on. On the other hand meaningful learning involves knowledge acquisition of a complex network of interrelated ideas and concepts. Meaningful learning results in the long-term understanding and retention of information, concepts or behavioural patterns. Memorisation forms part of meaningful learning, but learning should never be thought of merely as a process of memorisation. Then there is also the distinction between learning and studying. Learning implies the acquisition of new knowledge, skills and attitudes, but studying, on the other hand, is the process during which that knowledge and those skills are deliberately committed to longterm memory. Learning functions are performed by different processes within the brain, which depend on the mental capacities of the learner, the type of knowledge that has to be acquired and the varying circumstances in the environment. For effective learning to take place, the right conditions have to be present. This concept will be discussed later in this module. Think about it Do animals learn in the same way as humans do? Definition of Learning Psychology This subject focuses on both the concept of learning and that of psychology, which means looking at the learning process in more depth than simply from an educational point of view. It is important for educators to know what underlying processes are involved in learning, such as the cognitive processes of thinking and memory. The educator should have an understanding of children with their individual temperaments and ways of perception. These are the areas that are researched and studied by psychologists. Psychology is defined as the study of the mind and how it influences people s behaviour. (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English 2003:1322) Learning psychologists study the mental processes of learning and link this to what educators do in the classroom. This combination of research and practical experience is also referred to as Educational Psychology. This large base of research is a very useful 4 Topic 1

source of information for the educator in learning how to plan effectively and implement the best teaching strategies in the classroom. All this information should not be seen as a precise formula on how to be a successful educator. But a foundation of knowledge in this field can help to empower educators in their daily decision-making tasks. This subject will therefore help students become familiar with some of the research findings as well as practical suggestions that can lead to effective teaching. Learning Psychology can be defined as the application of psychological methods and theories to better understand the processes of learning, development, motivation, comprehension and knowledge acquisition. It is also about how these aspects influence the interaction between teaching and learning. In other words, Learning Psychology applies psychological methods to the study of education. By studying Learning Psychology, educators will be guided in understanding learners, the learning process and the instructional strategies that will enhance learning (Henson & Eller 1999: 4). Think about it Why is it easier to remember only some things that have been learnt and not everything? Why is time a very important factor in the learning process? Learning activity 1.1 Form small groups of about three or four and discuss the concepts Learning and Learning Psychology. Explore the different types of learning as well as the role Learning Psychology plays in the classroom. One person in each group should take notes of the discussion and, after about 10 minutes, each group should report back to the class what they discussed. Compare notes with the other groups. Your lecturer will assess you according to the following rubric. Assessment standards Comments 1 2 3 4 5 The group discussed the main concepts of Learning Psychology. The group discussed the link between learning and Learning Psychology. The group worked well together and was prepared for the discussion. The work was completed timeously and the group worked well together. The group s opinions are based on the participative learning approach. Scale: 1 = Not achieved (0-39%); 2 = Not yet competent (40-49%); 3 = Competent (50-69%); 4 = Highly competent (70-79%); 5 = Outstanding (80-100%) Module 1: The concept and rationale of Learning Psychology 5

Figure 1.2: Meaningful learning takes place in a participative setting. 1.2 Rationale for including Learning Psychology as part of this course Many students ask why this subject should be part of the Education and Development course. The definition of Learning Psychology points to some of the reasons why it is an important subject. The following points explain the rationale in more detail: Educators need to know more about the children they will be teaching in terms of how they learn, think, memorise and behave in relation to the different stages of development. Educators have to be exposed to the theoretical understanding of the psychology of human behaviour. Educators need to understand the learning process in order to teach effectively. Educators may be involved in research and studies with regard to effective teaching. This subject will give them the necessary understanding about the process of learning. After completing Learning Psychology, educators are better able to predict outcomes and to plan constructively for different classroom situations. Through the study of Learning Psychology, educators will be able to see cause-and-effect relationships in the classroom. Educators will be able to implement useful changes in the classroom. Figure 1.3: When children work together, they often learn better. 6 Topic 1

Therefore, in order to become effective eductors of children in the early developmental phases, students need to study Learning Psychology. This will assist them in thinking critically about teaching. Learning Psychology should also become part of the educator s plan for lifelong learning, as it could form the first step towards further study because being a good educator also means being a good learner. Think about it A positive learning environment must be established from the start and maintained throughout the year. Learning activity 1.2 Divide into groups of about four or five and read the section on Rationale for including Learning Psychology. Discuss Learning Psychology in terms of its relevance to education. Students should discuss their views and mention theories of learning with which they are familiar. One student in each group should be appointed to report the main points of the discussion to the class. The class can then discuss the combination of all the points. 1.3 The conditions for effective learning Since there are many factors that may contribute to effective learning, it is not possible to discuss all of them. Perhaps one of the most important factors is that of the learning environment in which the educator has the ability to maintain a positive and open climate. Educators must create an atmosphere which will encourage learning. By means of careful planning, educators can organise their classrooms in such a way that they contribute positively to learning, motivate the learners, and thereby also minimize inappropriate behaviour. ((Nieman et al. 2006: 159) A positive learning environment means that learners, including those who have special needs, will be able to learn effectively within the classroom climate. In order to create a positive classroom climate the following aspects should be considered: The educator should strive to provide learners with positive expectations, open and lively communication, consistency, constructive feedback, appropriate praise, a sense of humour, a caring attitude, positive reinforcement and occasional rewards. Learning does not take place in isolation, but is part of a broader social and cultural environment. Therefore the educator should always bear in mind the learners cultural backgrounds. A positive environment will be one where good discipline is maintained. This can be achieved by using a well-structured classroom policy that takes various behaviours and the consequences of those behaviours into consideration. The educator s role as the one who maintains discipline should be clear. Parents should assist with enforcing and be supportive of the classroom policy. The ultimate aim of discipline is not to punish learners, but to guide them in developing strong internal discipline and the ability to accept responsibility. Module 1: The concept and rationale of Learning Psychology 7

Motivation also contributes to a positive learning environment because the motivated learner will not cause disruptions, but will want to learn, to be co-operative and creative. The educator needs to create a learning environment in which stereotyping is examined and queried. Stereotyping, for example, of gender roles (male or female), can negatively influence the learning environment. Educators should avoid instances where stereotyping can arise in learning materials and should discourage such attitudes in social interaction with the children. The physical layout and facilities in the classroom should always be structured in such a way that learners with special needs will feel comfortable and at home. The learners sense of self-reliance and confidence can be adversely affected by exclusion. The quality of the learning environment can positively or adversely affect the way in which learners learn. It is therefore a fundamental principle that creating the right learning environment can lead to effective learning. The implications extend beyond the classroom environment and it is therefore important that educators are conscious of the need to create a learning environment that provides the right experiences and conditions for learning. Figure 1.4: An environment that contributes to learning is a positive one. Learning activity 1.3 Do this learning activity individually. Imagine you have the resources to design the perfect learning environment including learning materials, layout, furniture, etc. Draw or write down what this room looks like. Your lecturer will use the following checklist to assess the above report: Assessment standards Comments 1 2 3 4 5 The student has given a meaningful explanation of reasons why he or she has designed the classroom in such a way. Sentences are clear and complete. Grammar and spelling are correct. The student has provided a valid argument to support his or her case. Scale: 1 = Not achieved (0-39%); 2 = Not yet competent (40-49%); 3 = Competent (50-69%); 4 = Highly competent (70-79%); 5 = Outstanding (80-100%) Learning activity 1.4 In pairs, discuss and write down ways of creating the right conditions for learners with special needs to learn effectively. Consider what is needed for a learner with a physical disability, a learner who is mentally disabled, and a learner from a foreign country who cannot speak the language of instruction. 8 Topic 1

Learning activity 1.5 In pairs, follow the guideline on pages 7 and 8 regarding effective learning and design a page which resembles a lesson plan. Now role-play a scene where one student will teach another one a particular skill. This page must be placed in your PoE as evidence. Summative Assessment: Topic 1 Answer the following questions: 1. Define learning. (1) 2. Name the four different forms of learning? (2) 3. What is the meaning of rote learning? (2) 4. Define Learning Psychology. (1) 5. Give five good reasons why educators should study Learning Psychology. (5) 6. How can an educator create a positive learning climate? (3) 7. Why is it important for the educator to be aware of the learners different personalities? (2) 8. Give some examples of stereotyping. (3) 9. How would positive personality traits influence learning? (3) 10.Describe an ideal learning environment. (3) Total: 25 The lecturer will use the following rating scale to assess your work: Assessment standards Comments 1 2 3 4 5 The student created positive expectations. The student gave constructive feedback. The student gave appropriate praise. The student demonstrated a caring attitude. The student communicated in a lively, friendly manner. The student could maintain discipline. The student created an environment which motivates learning. Scale: 1 = Not achieved (0-39%); 2 = Not yet competent (40-49%); 3 = Competent (50-69%); 4 = Highly competent (70-79%); 5 = Outstanding (80-100%) Topic 1: Summary In this topic you were introduced to the concept of Learning Psychology and the rationale for its inclusion in your course. Learning and Learning Psychology were defined. Then we looked at the four different forms of learning and the effect of personality traits on learning. The conditions for effective learning and the need for the creation of a positive learning environment by educators were explained. Module 1: The concept and rationale of Learning Psychology 9