SALT The Student s Academic Literacy Tool

SALT The Student s Academic Literacy Tool Developed by: Sue Becker; Holly Shahverdi; Luke Kennedy & Nadine Spence (October 2014)

Introduction The SALT has been constructed to aid students in their writing at degree level. This writing tool is organized into four sections that address different aspects of academic writing. These are as follows: Section A: Grammatical accuracy Section B: Correct use of language Section C: Structure and development of text Section D: Use of relevant source material Each section takes the form of a checklist. Once you feel confident that you have included each point throughout your assignment you can check them off the list. This is to encourage development of an academic writing style which will enable you to produce the strongest piece of academic writing in any field. In the checklists, each criterion is briefly explained to ensure that you fully understand it. If you feel that you need further clarification of a particular criterion, there is a glossary at the back of the booklet including examples. Once you feel confident that you have checked all the boxes, the work is then graded between 1 and 5. The checklist format provides a simple but effective way to identify strengths and weaknesses in your academic writing style and allows you to work independently to improve the quality of your work, thus achieving higher grades. Grading scale key 1: Inaccurate 2: Often inaccurate 3: Some inaccuracies 4: Mainly accurate 5: Accurate 1

Section A: Grammatical accuracy Criteria 1. Correctly formed clause structures You must make sure that your sentences are structured correctly. 2. Correct subject-verb agreement All verbs within the sentence must make sense. 3. Correctly formed tense choice The appropriate tense must be used. 4. Demonstrate use of both passive and active language Work must demonstrate an understanding that the focus of a sentence is interchangeable. The focus may be either the action or the object. 5. Correct use of articles The word prior to the noun must be used correctly, (a, and or the) 6. Correct use of conjuncts, adjuncts and disjuncts Please refer to the glossary for a more in-depth explanation of these. 7. Punctuation is generally correct Full stops, commas, semi-colons etc. must be used in the correct place. 8. Spelling is generally correct Work must be spell checked. Any word that you are unsure how to spell should be looked up in a dictionary. 9. Capitals used appropriately Capital letters must be used at the beginning of sentences and for the names of places or people. Check Box 5 4 3 2 1 (See glossary for further examples) 2

Section B: Correct use of language Criteria 1. Field specific vocabulary The language used throughout your work must be relevant to the field you are studying. 2. Appropriate level of formality and objectivity It is important that a neutral and unbiased perspective is adopted. 3. Appropriate use of evaluative language The language used within the text must include evaluative language such as modality and metaphors 4. Appropriate use of grammatical metaphor Please refer to the glossary for a more in-depth explanation of grammatical metaphor. 5.Organization of main points within the text Information must be structured in a way that allows the reader to fully understand how the argument has developed. 6.Control of cohesive devices In order to make sure the text is concise; repetition of similar phrases in a sentence should be avoided. Check Box 5 4 3 2 1 (See glossary for further examples) 3

Section C: Structure and development of text Criteria 1. Introduction orientates to how the argument will be presented The first paragraph must show awareness of how to compose a structured answer that addresses the question being asked. 2. Claims build up the argument presented in the introduction All points made throughout the text should be relevant to the introduction. 3. Text structure is appropriate to the title The writer should be aware of which structure is appropriate for their work and adjust writing style accordingly to meet the criteria of that assessment. E.g., an essay is structurally different to a report. 4. Beginnings of paragraphs and sentences orientate to the argument and title The first sentence of each paragraph should relate to the last sentence of the preceding paragraph. 5. Conflicting arguments are presented, addressed and effectively managed Counter arguments must be incorporated and critically evaluated correctly. 6. Information flow in the argument progresses in a logical order The writer must present coherent text when discussing the size, scope and impact of the claims within the argument. 7. Conclusion follows from argument and relates to title. The conclusion should be directly related to both the title and the rest of the text. Check box 5 4 3 2 1 (See glossary for further examples) 4

Section D: Use of relevant source material Criteria 1. Most relevant and up to date research is included It is essential that the most relevant up to date source material is used throughout text when discussing theories. 2. Non peer-reviewed and non-academic source material is avoided All information, (both from research and theory), should be taken from sources that have been peer reviewed and are reliable. 3. Information from course material and any other research is interpreted correctly The writer should filter only the most relevant pieces of information from source material and use it appropriately. 4. Text is free from plagiarism The writer must be able to demonstrate originality when answering the question. 5. Accurate referencing in text, bibliography or reference list The writer must be able to format academic writing using different sources correctly within the accepted guidelines. Check Box 5 4 3 2 1 (See glossary for further examples) 5

Glossary The glossary section is designed to help you to identify key criterion within text. Sections 1 and 2 begin with an extract taken from a piece of academic work. Following the extract will be the list of criteria with further explanations and how each one has been used within the example. There will be numbers indicating which section of the text to refer to for an example. E.g. 1 Sections 3 and 4 will include a more detailed explanation of each criterion. 6

Section A: Grammatical accuracy Extract 1: It has been argued that many psychics use cold reading to make their claims. 1 Cold reading is a method employed by psychics whereby they are able to convince the sitter they can read their mind when in reality they are making their claims based on the sitter s body language 2, (Hyman, 2007). Psychics can make a vague and highly general claim and sitters will ask are you sure or I can take everything but this, (Hyman, 2007). 3 For this reason, more people should consider whether the psychic should have room for mistakes if they are claiming that the spirit is on the stage talking to them. 4 Equally, it may be useful to consider that as noted in the introduction, if these interactions are televised they may appear even more credible as the psychic s mistakes can be cut out. Fortunately 5, this kind of research can help people to approach these situations with less of an open mind. 6 1. Correctly formed clause structures A clause is a group of words that form either full sentences or part of a sentence. All sentences contain a main clause. A simple sentence is one that only consists of a single clause Refer to extract 1. 1 Compound sentences are made up of two or more main clauses joined together using conjunctions, (joining words). Refer to extract 1. 2 Complex sentences are made up of a main clause and a subordinate clause. A subordinate clause adds extra information to the main clause but will not make sense alone. Refer to extract 1. 5 2. Correct subject-verb agreement Subject-verb agreement is using the correct verb in a sentence. You might use tools such as a thesaurus or the synonym checker in an attempt to improve your vocabulary. These tools are not always effective if you do not understand the correct meaning of the suggested verbs. Using the incorrect verb leads to a lack of subject-verb agreement. 7

With reference to extract 1. 5, the phrase cut out makes sense, whereas ripped out would not have been appropriate in this text though the words have a similar meaning. 3. Correctly formed tense choice There are three tenses, past present and future. Tenses portray the sequence of events; they give the text chronological order and aid narrative progression. An awareness of which tense to use at the correct time is essential to a good academic writing style. The types of tenses are as follows: - The present tense. This is when the action is taking place. The present tense is usually appropriate in an essay. e.g. Ruqaiya argues. - The past tense. This is when the action has taken place in the past. This tense is most appropriate when discussing previous research. e.g. Ruqaiya argued. - The future tense. This is when the action will take place in the future. e.g. Ruqaiya will conduct research - The conditional tense. This is when the action is not definite but may take place. It is most often used in introduction and conclusion sections. e.g. Ruqaiya may argue. 4. Correctly formed passives Passive language places focus upon the receiver of action. In academic writing as in the example below, the focus is the object (the research) rather than the agent of the action (Bandura). e.g: Research conducted by Bandura. Active language is also important in improving academic writing style. This is where the focus is placed upon the person carrying out the action, this construction may be more appropriate when evaluating the contribution of a particular psychologist e.g. Bandura conducted research. 5. Correct use of articles In order to improve academic writing style, it is important to understand how to use articles correctly. There are three articles that can be used, these are; 8

the, an, and a. These are divided into two types of articles; the definite (the) and the indefinite (a, and an.) The definite article is used to indicate something specific whilst the indefinite articles are used to indicate non-specific things. The following examples show how articles can be used to convey different meanings. Refer to extract 1. 3 This sentence indicates that you can sit at any table However, if it is necessary to make the sentence more specific, it may be useful to use a different article. Refer to extract 1. 4 When using an and a it is important to determine the first sound of the next word. If the sound the word will create is a vowel then an is used. Refer to extract 1. 6 6. Correct use of conjuncts, adjuncts and disjuncts In order to make academic writing flow it is essential that an understanding of the following three criterions are understood. Below are examples and explanations of each: Conjunct: A conjunct is a word used in a sentence that is not related to the proposition the meaning of the sentence) but still adds to the sentence; usually by relating what is said in one sentence to another, i.e. Moreover, Furthermore, or etc.. Refer to extract 1. 3 Adjunct: An adjunct modifies the verb to display factors such as time, manner, place frequency and/or degree of that particular verb in the sentence i.e. highly, rarely etc. refer to extract 1. 3 Disjunct: Disjuncts relate to expressing the writers attitude or position on the subject in that particular sentence i.e. Unfortunately, etc. Refer to extract 1. 6 7. Punctuation is generally correct In order to achieve a high standard of academic writing, it is essential that punctuation is used correctly throughout a piece of work. Some key punctuation marks to remember are: - Colons (:). Colons are to be used before doing a bullet pointed lists. - Semi colons (;). Semi colons are to be used when doing lists within the text. - Ellipsis ( ). Ellipsis are used in academic writing when missing out part of a quote. - Quotation marks ( ) Quotation marks need to be used correctly within their placement of the text. It is essential to remember how they affect the 9

placement of other punctuation. A full stop would always be placed before the end of the quotation mark. Refer to extract 1. 8. Spelling is generally correct Make sure that all work is spelt correctly, if using word processing then a spell check will be available to help with this. For instances when you do not have access to a spell check facility then certain spelling rules can be learnt in order to improve your spelling. Spelling is important as it can sometimes affect the meaning of the word e.g. there, their and they re. 9. Capitals are used appropriately It is important in academic writing to have the correct use of capitals letters. A full stop must always be followed by a capital letter. Capital letters must also be used within sentences when naming a person or place. Refer to extract 1. 10

Section B: Correct use of language Extract 2: There are three main psychological theories that examine humour, its comic nature and its quantifiable elements, insofar to say each theory proposes a different hypothesis to why we laugh. Most prevalent amongst these is the incongruity theory (Berger, 1994; Clark, 1970; Curco, 1996; Meyer, 2000 & Rutter, 1997). 1 Schopenhauer s interpretation of incongruity (2010) furthers Kant (2007) and is the most widely accepted theoretical basis for contemporary research on humour. 2 Perhaps most important to denote in this theory is how recognition and understanding multiple sets of scripts and roles contribute to the presentation of the joke and the falseness of the narrative congruence 3, thus leading to the difference in expectation and the surprise effect (Shurcliff, 1968). This highlights a link that shows how a cognitive understanding of semantics (Giora, 1991; Grice 1975) can, in this sense lead to a better understanding of humour as a concept. Moreover, it could be suggested that the form of incongruence theory shares commonalities with the form of a joke, wherein there is a setup, expectation and twist; advocating evidence for why incongruence is the most popular humour theory. 4 1. Field specific vocabulary Using the correct vocabulary is essential in academic writing. When writing persuasive pieces it is important to use persuasive language. Yet in research reports more scientific and academic language will be needed. Is the vocabulary used the correct choice for the task at hand? It will need to include abstract wording and wording specific for the field of study. Doing academic reading around the topic area will help to highlight some specific technical terms within the field. Refer to extract 2.1 e.g. In biology when talking about the structure of the body, you would not call it the structure of the body but would refer to it as the anatomy of the body. 11

2. Appropriate level of formality and objectivity In academic writing it is important to get the correct balance of how formal and objective the work needs to be. To try to improve the level of academic writing in this area, make sure the piece is written in the third person. e.g. The study found.. the author found etc. It is important to give a balanced view, do not build the argument up in favour of a personal opinion but show all opinions that could be had of the topic. Refer to extract 2. 4 Moreover, it could be suggested that 3. Appropriate use of modality, metaphors and other evaluative language Metaphor is the practice of using one concept which is familiar to explain another process or concept which may be new or less familiar. For example, mental health or intellectual level. Modality indicates the degree of certainty in any claim i.e. research suggests that mood may be affected by cortisol level as opposed to according to research, mood is affected by cortisol level, Refer to extract 2. 2 4. Appropriate use of grammatical metaphor Grammatical metaphor is a key feature of scientific and technical writing. Using grammatical metaphors processes or actions become things or concepts and human actions are made invisible to the reader i.e. the process of designing research becomes research design The writing also becomes more noun heavy which is a typical feature of academic style writing Refer to extract 2 3 the falseness of the narrative congruence 12

5. Control of cohesive devices Reference chains allow reading to be simpler. They follow through your text so you know what is being discussed. For example, if the person in question is named Becker, once they have been named then the reader is already aware of who is being talked about so this can follow through the text in the upcoming sentences. e.g. Becker proposed a theory of humour in 1949. The theory was further developed by Kilinc et al. Due to the reference chain it was not necessary to state Becker proposed a theory of humour in 1949. Becker s theory of humour was further developed by Kilinc et al. 13

Section C: Structure and development of text 1. Introduction engages with the title and orientates to how the argument will be presented Introductions are necessary to grab the reader s attention and are vital for letting them know what is going to come in the essay. They should give the context and background of the topic, showing a clear purpose for the essay. They need to include an outline of the main things that you are going to cover. 2. Claims build up the argument presented in the introduction The argument needs to be correctly structured with relevant claims as this will help to strengthen the piece of writing. Normally, an argument will begin with general claims surrounding the topic area. This allows the reader to see the background and more general research and how it has been refined into the point being made. Once the general claims have provided a holistic background the writer can then begin to further develop the claims to produce a more complex argument. Academic writing generally becomes more refined as it develops and this is done through the correct use of claims. 3. Text structure is appropriate to the title The text structure is dependent upon the task given. It is important that the nature of the task is fully understood so as then the appropriate structure can be used. For example, the structure of an essay is very different to that of a research report. 4. Beginnings of paragraphs and sentences orientate to the argument and title One way of ensuring that the beginnings of paragraphs and sentences orientate to the argument is to read through the first and last sentence of each paragraph and ensure that each paragraph links together to produce a wellstructured argument. This is known as signposting. 14

5. Conflicting arguments are presented, addressed and effectively managed It is important to show both sides of the argument as opposing arguments are used to create discussion within the text. If studies have shown opposite findings to the original argument, these need to be included and addressed. They can be effectively managed by explaining why the results may have been different. For example, some studies may only use participants from a particular area and this may be the reason the study didn t have the expected results. It can be stated that although this study had different findings to the other research quoted, this could be due to the sample and not because of the phenomena being researched. 6. Information flow in the argument progresses in a logical order Essay which flow logically are much easier to read than essays that jump from topic to topic. Ordering paragraphs with ideas that link to each other can counteract this from happening. If there are 4 main points to write about then order them in a way that will allow them to be linked. Use the opening and closing sentences of paragraphs to link previous points to the points that are about to be made. Write more generally in these sentences and this will allow them to be linked to previous and following paragraphs. 7. Statement of conclusion follows from argument and relates to title A conclusion is needed in order to remind the reader of all the main points that have been covered. This is an important summary of all that has been included in the writing. It is important for this not just to relate to what has been discussed in the work but also to relate this previous content back to the title. This allows the reader to know what conclusion or answer has been reached to address the title. Conclusions are also important for stating what can be considered for future research. 15

Section D: Use of relevant source material 1. Most relevant and up to date research is included To ensure the literature is relevant, it must easily relate to the topic area. It is advisable when reading research papers and books to check that the literature is up to date. This can be done by looking at when the literature was published. The published date can usually be found on the inside cover of a book or on the first page of a journal. If you are still unsure you can find the literature online. 2. Non peer-reviewed and non-academic source material is avoided It is imperative that the work you submit contains only peer-reviewed articles. If work has been peer-reviewed it is generally a much more reliable and trustworthy source. To ensure your source material is peer-reviewed, when using search engines make sure the peer reviewed box is ticked. Non-academic information can be written by anyone meaning it is not always accurate. A commonly used non-academic source is Wikipedia. This website allows anyone with internet access to manipulate the information. Following the importance of using peer-reviewed information, it is essential that source material is also academic as this increases its accuracy and improves the quality of academic writing. 3. Information from course material and any other research is interpreted correctly In order to hit this criterion, it is most important that the information from the source material is fully understood before being transferred into the writing. This is because the misinterpretation of information from source material can affect the accuracy of the piece of writing. In order to attain the highest standard of academic writing, it is essential that the writer is able to identify and correctly transfer only the most relevant pieces of information from a source into their writing. An example of this would be the ability to use metaphor correctly. 4. Text is free from plagiarism When constructing a piece of writing it is important that the work is original and any other information used is credited. This is ensured through correct referencing. 16

5. Accurate referencing in text, bibliography or reference list Different schools of study require different referencing styles so it is important to see what style of referencing is appropriate for the assignment. Referencing guides are available that will show in detail how to reference in text and in the reference list. It is important to get these correct as well as the format of the text and tables etc. 17