Anthony Mayo ITEC 870 White Paper Assignment 2 Instructional Design Strategies Based on Self-Determination Theory to Enhance Motivation in Online Learning Introduction Typically, adults who choose to participate in distance education coursework are described as highly motivated (Moore and Kearsley, 2005). However, in a 1998 survey performed by the Distance Education and Training Council (as cited by Moore and Kearsley, 2005), it was determined that only 57% of adult learners completed distance education courses in which they were enrolled. Why do 43% of adult learners considered highly motivated drop out of distance education courses? This paradox provides a rationale for examining the role of motivation in distance education. Since more and more people, as well as industry, are turning toward online learning to meet their educational needs, the focus of this white paper will be motivation in online learning. Specifically, this paper will provide a brief overview of Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and discuss strategies used to facilitate intrinsic motivation based on tenets of SDT. SDT Three Constructs of Motivation Motivation, as viewed by SDT, is a long-term and persistent psychological quality in which social factors and psychological mediators are determinants of motivation. The behavior that results from an individual s motivation(s) ultimately leads to certain consequences. (Cox, 2002; Vallerand, 1999, Vallerand and Rosseau, 2001). At the heart of SDT is the notion that motivation consists of three constructs that lie across a continuum. These constructs are amotivation, extrinsic motivation (EM), and intrinsic motivation (IM) (Cox, 2002; Ryan and Deci, 2000; Vallerand, 1999; Vallerand and Ratelle, 2002). The locus of control of behavior (internal or external) determines where an individual lies on the continuum. [insert Self-Determination Continuum here] Self Determination Continuum (Ryan and Deci, 2002) Amotivation may be described as behavior that lacks motive or purpose. In some cases, behavior may not occur due to amotivation. The locus of control for amotivated behaviors is neither internal nor externally based. A student who is amotivated may indicate that s/he does not know why s/he enrolled in a class or may not see any particular benefit from participating in the class. 1
EM may be described as behaviors that are due to external reasons (external locus of control). An individual who is extrinsically motivated performs an activity or exhibits a particular behavior for reasons other than the activity or behavior itself. There are four types of EM external regulation (ER), introjected regulation (IJR), identified regulation (IDR), and integrated regulation (ITR). Each type is associated with a certain degree of internalization. As behavior becomes more internalized (or valued by the individual), EM moves toward IM. IM may be described as behaviors that are due to internal reasons (internal locus of control). Intrinsically motivated behaviors are considered self-regulated behaviors as those actions are performed for the pure enjoyment of the behavior itself. Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation The Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation is a theoretical paradigm used to examine the orientation of motivations, the factors that influence motivations and the consequences that result from behaviors. The diagram below illustrates the dynamics of motivation: [insert Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation here] The Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation (Vallerand and Ratalle, 2002) The factors that influence motivation relate to social experiences, as well as psychological beliefs about competence, autonomy, and relatedness that result from those experiences (Cox, 2002; Ryan and Deci, 2000; Vallerand, 1999; Vallerand and Ratelle, 2002). Social factors relate to both human and non-human interactions. In an educational setting, examples of human interactions are student-student interactions, as well as student-instructor interactions. Examples of non-human interactions include computer interface design and curriculum design. Psychological beliefs that result from social factors influence motivation type. As such, they are referred to as mediators. As illustrated in the diagram above, the psychological mediators influential to motivation are competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Competence refers to an individual s desire to be skillful, proficient, and/or capable in a particular activity or arena. Autonomy refers to an individual s desire to be in control of his or her own behaviors or actions. The individual wants to control his or her own destiny. Relatedness refers to an individual s desire to be part of, or connected, to with a group. Research suggests that relatedness facilitates internalization, which is critical for developing self-regulation in extrinsic motivation (Ryan and Deci, 2000). Social interactions that enable successful experiences may facilitate feelings of competence and self-efficacy and encourage continued participation. Positive feedback from fellow students or the instructor may have similar effects. Additionally, instructors who create a task-oriented environment that facilitate cooperation between students foster 2
relatedness. Finally, instructors who allow students to take control over their own learning may foster feelings of autonomy. The model also postulates that motivations exist at three different levels global, contextual, and situational, and that the dynamic interaction that occurs at each level can have both top-down and recursive effects (Vallerand, 1999; Vallerand and Ratelle, 2002). For the purposes of this paper, this proposal will not be elaborated. Instructional Design Applications for Online Learning Strategies Based on SDT Students who take online learning courses face challenges that are different compared to traditional face-to-face courses. Instructional designers must address these challenges in order to design and develop instruction that not only facilitates learning, but also enhances motivation. Some of these challenges relate to geographical separation, communication, access to resources, course logistics and instructional activities. The most salient feature of online learning environments is that of remote learning. The learner does not directly interact with students and the instructor, and when the learner does interact, the communication may be asynchronous. According to SDT, social factors are critical to motivation. In order to help facilitate the development of intrinsic motivation or more internalized forms of extrinsic motivation in learners, a social environment must be created that facilitates competency, autonomy, and relatedness. Online modules should contain various activities for the learner to experience success in mastering course material. Successful experiences can breed feelings of competence and self-efficacy. Offering a variety of opportunities will allow the student to experience success should s/he initially experience failure. The instructor should also provide timely feedback that would enable learners to quickly recognize and correct errors, as well as to encourage further exploration of the topic. The tone of voice used to communicate feedback should be encouraging rather than controlling to further foster autonomy. In addition to enhancing autonomy, encouraging behaviors may also lead to an increase in feelings of relatedness. Additionally, course activities should be designed to foster interaction with the goal to develop a community of learners. The sense of community should instill feelings of relatedness. The activities should also be cooperative in nature so that students will be able to share their knowledge, work on problem solving together, and to learn from each other. The dynamics of cooperation should encourage a mastery learning orientation, an orientation that focuses on the process of learning, not the final product. These interactions should allow students to construct their own knowledge. The instructor should serve as a guide on the side overseeing the discussions. Self-directed learning based on clearly stated learning objectives should be the goal of the instructor. However, if the instructor observes that objectives are not being met, the instructor is responsible for redirecting students in a manner that fosters autonomy. 3
One factor not yet addressed related to geographical separation is that of access to resources. In a face-to-face environment, library resources are easily accessible. In an online environment, this may not be the case. The instructional designer must identify and make available to students all necessary resources to ensure students can successful meet learning objectives. Forgetting this important logistic would create a critical barrier to learning. Conclusion With the increase in the popularity of online learning, it is imperative that instructional designers have a general understanding of motivation in order to design web-based instruction that encourages persistence. SDT is one paradigm that may be used to obtain a better understanding of student motivation. SDT stresses the importance of social factors, psychological mediators, and consequences of actions in the development of selfdetermined or regulated motivation. Having knowledge of SDT and its practical applications can enable instructional designers to create instruction that facilitates the development of more self-determined behaviors in online learning participants. 4
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