Models of Organisational Learning Vygotsky s social constructivist Kolb s Experiential Learning Argyris s Model Single and Double Loop Learning
Vygotsky s Social Constructivism
Vygotsky s Social Constructivism Vygotsky's theory: Lev Vygotsky also believed that people construct their own knowledge. People use language not only for social communication but to plan, guide and monitor their behaviour in a self-regulatory fashion. Called inner speech or private speech. It was an important tool of thought during the early childhood years.
Vygotsky s Social Constructivism Vygotsky believed children must use language to communicate with others before they can focus inwards on their own thoughts. After a while, the self-talk becomes second nature to children and they can act without verbalising. When this occurs, children have internalised their egocentric speech in the form of inner speech which becomes their thoughts. He believed that children who use a lot of private speech are more socially competent.
Vygotsky s Social Constructivism Vygotsky - a social constructivist. Believed a child construct knowledge through social interaction with each other and the content of the knowledge is influenced by the culture in which the student lives, which includes language, belief and skills. Thus, he says that the teacher should create many opportunities for the child to learn with the teacher and peers in co-constructing the knowledge.
Vygotsky s Social Constructivism Identified two tasks as basic to a child's development: (1) The social situation that defines a child's life (intermental level). The psychological structures that develop in connection with this mode of life (intramental level) Theory: Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition.
Vygotsky s Social Constructivism Everything is learned on 2 levels: a) First through interaction with others. b) Then integrated into the individual's mental structure. Believed that learners need socially rich environments in which to explore subjects with teachers and peers. Opportunities to work with more experienced peers are especially important to help learner develop a higher level of cognitive functioning.
Vygotsky s Social Constructivism Social Constructivist: Situated Cognition is an important assumption in the social constructivist approaches. It refers to the idea that knowledge is embedded in and connected to the context in which the knowledge developed. Give real-world experiences. ZPD - Zone of Proximal Development: A way to increase one's learning through interactions with others. An area of exploration for which the learner is cognitively prepared but requires social interaction to fully develop._
Vygotsky s Social Constructivism Zone of Proximal Development: Older, mature children and other experts can contribute to the learning experience of the younger children. As tasks get harder to perform alone, we seek help from others. Therefore, we have to collaborate with others to solve that task -- working in the zone of proximal development. We take what these interactions provide and assimilate into our reality, forming our own experiences then
Vygotsky s Social Constructivism Zone of Proximal Development: Older, mature children and other experts can contribute to the learning experience of the younger children. As tasks get harder to perform alone, we seek help from others. Therefore, we have to collaborate with others to solve that task -- working in the zone of proximal development. We take what these interactions provide and assimilate into our reality, forming our own experiences then
Vygotsky s Social Constructivism Principles of Social Constructivism: 1. Learning and development is a social and collaborative activity 2. The ZPD serves as a guide for learning 3. Learning occurs in a meaningful context and not be separated from learning and knowledge children develop in the "real world" Out-of-school experiences should be related to a person's school experience.
Vygotsky s Social Constructivism Types of social constructivist activities: 1. Workshops 2. Situated Learning 3. Collaborative Learning 4. Cooperative Learning 5. Games and Simulations 6. Case studies 7. Problem-solving
Vygotsky s Social Constructivism Social constructivist approaches (a) Scaffolding - a technique of changing the level of support over the course of a teaching session, a more skilled person, a teacher or a more-advance student, adjust the amounts of guidance to fit the student's current performance level. When the task to the student is new, the teacher may use directed instruction but as the student's competence increases, less guidance is provided.
Vygotsky s Social Constructivism (b) Cognitive Apprenticeship In a cognitive apprenticeship, teachers often model strategies for students. Then, teacher or skilled peers support student's effort at doing the task. Finally, they encourage students to continue to work independently. But the key aspect is the expert's evaluation of when the learner is ready to take the next step with support from the expert.
Vygotsky s Social Constructivism (c) Tutoring - involves a cognitive apprenticeship between an expert and a novice. There is cross-age tutoring (older students tutor younger students) and same-agetutoring (peer in the same class) (d) Cooperative Learning - occurs when students work in small group to help each other to solve a task that individually cannot be done or will take too long to complete.
Kolb s Experiential Learning
Experiential Learning The term experiential is used to emphasis any role for subjective experience in the learning process. Difference from cognitive and behavioural theories, which tend to emphasize cognition over affect, and behavioral learning theories that deny the learners experience.
Experiential Learning The theory is called experiential has its intellectual origins in the experiential works of Dewey, Lewin, and Piaget. Taken together, Dewey s philosophical pragmatism, Lewin s social psychology, and Piaget s cognitivedevelopmental genetic epistemology form a unique perspective on learning and development. (Kolb, 1984).
Experiential Learning Experiential learning theory defines learning as "the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience.
Beginnings of experiential learning In the early 1980's, many theorists stressed that the heart of all learning lies in the way we process experience, in particular, our critical reflection of experience. They spoke of learning as a cycle that begins with experience, continues with reflection and later leads to action, which itself becomes a concrete experience for reflection
Beginnings of experiential learning For example: A teacher might have an encounter with an angry student who failed a test. This is the concrete experience. Reflection of this experience would involve trying to explain it to oneself Comparing it to previous experiences to determine what is the same and what is unique, analyzing it according to personal or institutional standards Formulating a course of action connected to the experiences of others, such as talking to other teachers who have also faced angry students. Talking to other teachers, the action, will then lead to further reflection
Kolb s Experiential learning The ELT model portrays two related modes of grasping experience - Concrete Experience (CE) - and Abstract Conceptualization (AC) And two related modes of transforming experience - Reflective Observation (RO) - and Active Experimentation (AE).
Kolb s Experiential learning Process
Kolb s Experiential learning Process We experience an event or what is known a s concrete experiences Based on that experience, we perform observations and reflections to compare past experiences and knowledge to understand the event. These reflections are assimilated and distilled into abstract concepts from which new implications for action can be drawn. These implications can be actively tested and serve as guides in creating new experiences
Kolb s Experiential learning Process In grasping experience some of us perceive new information through experiencing the concrete, tangible, FELT qualities of the world, relying on our senses and immersing ourselves in concrete reality. Others tend to perceive, grasp, or take hold of new information through symbolic representation or abstract conceptualization THINKING about, analyzing, or systematically planning, rather than using sensation as a guide.
Kolb s Experiential learning Process Similarly, in transforming or processing experience some of us tend to carefully WATCH others who are involved in the experience and reflect on what happens, While others choose to jump right in and start DOING things. The watchers favor reflective observation, while the doers favor active experimentation.
Kolb s Experiential Learning
Kolb s Experiential learning Do Test!!!
Kolb s Experiential learning Process
Kolb s Learning Style Diverging. The Diverging style s dominant learning abilities are Concrete Experience (CE) and Reflective Observation (RO). People with this learning style are best at viewing concrete situations from many different points of view. It is labeled Diverging because a person with it performs better in situations that call for generation of ideas, such as a brainstorming session.
Kolb s Learning Style Diverging. People with a Diverging learning style have broad cultural interests and like to gather information. Research shows that they are interested in people, tend to be imaginative and emotional, have broad cultural interests, and tend to specialize in the arts. In formal learning situations, people with the Diverging style prefer to work in groups, listening with an open mind and receiving personalized feedback.
Kolb s Learning Style Assimilating. The Assimilating style s dominant learning abilities are Abstract Conceptualization (AC) and Reflective Observation (RO). People with this learning style are best at understanding a wide range of information and putting into concise, logical form. Individuals with an Assimilating style are less focused on people and more interested in ideas and abstract concepts.
Kolb s Learning Style Assimilating Generally, people with this style find it more important that a theory have logical soundness than practical value. The Assimilating learning style is important for effectiveness in information and science careers. In formal learning situations, people with this style prefer readings, lectures, exploring analytical models, and having time to think things through.
Kolb s Learning Style Converging. The Converging style s dominant learning abilities are Abstract Conceptualization (AC) and Active Experimentation (AE). People with this learning style are best at finding practical uses for ideas and theories. They have the ability to solve problems and make decisions based on finding solutions to questions or problems.
Kolb s Learning Style Converging Individuals with a Converging learning style prefer to deal with technical tasks and problems rather than with social issues and interpersonal issues. These learning skills are important for effectiveness in specialist and technology careers. In formal learning situations, people with this style prefer to experiment with new ideas, simulations, laboratory assignments, and practical applications.
Kolb s Learning Style Accommodating. The Accommodating style s dominant learning abilities are Concrete Experience (CE) and Active Experimentation (AE). People with this learning style have the ability to learn from primarily hand-on experience. They enjoy carrying out plans and involving themselves in new and challenging experiences. Their tendency may be to act on gut feelings rather than on logical analysis.
Kolb s Learning Style Accommodating. In solving problems, individuals with an Accommodating learning style rely more heavily on people for information than on their own technical analysis. This learning style is important for effectiveness in actionoriented careers such as marketing or sales. In formal learning situations, people with the Accommodating learning style prefer to work with others to get assignments done, to set goals, to do field work, and to test out different approaches to completing a project.
Kolb s Experiential learning Process
Argyris s Single Loop / Double Loop
Argyris s Model What is Organizational Learning? Chris Argyris and Donald Schön (1978) defined organizational learning (OL) as: "the detection and correction of error Argyris is also known a the Father of Organizational Learning
Argyris s Model Argyris and Schon (1974) assert that people hold maps in their heads about how to plan, implement and review their actions. Espoused theory The world view and values people believe their behaviour is based on Theory-in-use The world view and values implied by their behaviour, or the maps they use to take action
Argyris s Model They are suggesting that people are unaware that their theories-in-use are often not the same as their espoused theories, and that people are often unaware of their theories-in-use.
Argyris s Model Example When asked about how a person would deal with a disagreement with a client, a management consultant responded that he would first state his understanding of the disagreement, then negotiate what kind of data he and the client could agree would resolve it. This represents his espoused theory (or the theory behind what he says) which is of joint control of the problem.
Argyris s Model A tape recording of the consultant in such a situation however, revealed that he actually advocated his own point of view and dismissed the client's. This indicated his theory-in-use (or the theory behind what he did), which more closely approximates his unilateral control of the problem and a rejection of valid information exchange.
Argyris s Model Argyris and Schön (1974) initially looked to three elements: Governing variables: those dimensions that people are trying to keep within acceptable limits. Any action is likely to impact upon a number of such variables thus any situation can trigger a trade-off among governing variables. Action strategies: the moves and plans used by people to keep their governing values within the acceptable range. Consequences: what happens as a result of an action. These can be both intended - those actor believe will result - and unintended. In addition those consequences can be for the self, and/or for others.
Argyris s Model
Argyris s Model Where the consequences of the strategy used are what the person wanted, then the theory-in-use is confirmed. This is because there is a match between intention and outcome. There may be a mismatch between intention and outcome. In other words, the consequences may be unintended. They may also not match, or work against, the person s governing values.
Argyris s Model Argyris and Schön suggest two responses to this mismatch, and these are can be seen in the notion of single and double-loop learning.
Argyris s Model For Argyris and Schön learning involves the detection and correction of error. Single-loop Where something goes wrong, it is suggested, an initial port of call for many people is to look for another strategy that will address and work within the governing variables. In other words, given or chosen goals, values, plans and rules are operationalized rather than questioned.
Argyris s Model Double-loop An alternative response is to question to governing variables themselves, to subject them to critical scrutiny. Such learning may then lead to an alteration in the governing variables and, thus, a shift in the way in which strategies and consequences are framed.
Single / Double loop learning governing variable action strategy consequences single-loop learning double-loop learning
Learning types single-loop learning adaptive learning, which focuses on how to improve incremental change. It solves problems but ignores the question why the problem arose in the first place; doubleloop learning generative learning, aimed at transformational change by changing the status quo. Double loop learning uses feedback from past actions to question assumptions underlying current views. When considering feedback, managers and professionals need to ask not only what should we do next, but also, why are we doing what we are doing and even more importantly what else should we be doing? deuterolearning learning how to learn by seeking to improve both single- and double-loop learning. source: Argyris and Schön, Organizational Learning, 1978
Argyris s Model Organisational learning context When the error detected and corrected permits the organization to carry on its present policies or achieve its presents objectives, then that error-and-correction process is single-loop learning. Single-loop learning is like a thermostat that learns when it is too hot or too cold and turns the heat on or off.
Argyris s Model The thermostat can perform this task because it can receive information (the temperature of the room) and take corrective action. Single-loop learning seems to be present when goals, values, frameworks and, to a significant extent, strategies are taken for granted. The emphasis is on techniques and making techniques more efficient. Any reflection is directed toward making the strategy more effective.
Argyris s Model Double-loop learning occurs when error is detected and corrected in ways that involve the modification of an organization s underlying norms, policies and objectives Double-loop learning involves questioning the role of the framing and learning systems which underlie actual goals and strategies. Reflection here is more fundamental: the basic assumptions behind ideas or policies are confronted hypotheses are publicly tested processes are disconfirmable not self-seeking.
Argyris s Models Models The next step that Argyris and Schön take is to set up two models that describe features of theories-in-use that either inhibit or enhance double-loop learning. The belief is that all people utilize a common theory-in-use in problematic situations. This they describe as Model I and it can be said to inhibit double-loop learning. Model II is where the governing values associated with theories-in-use enhance double-loop learning.
Argyris s Models Model I Argyris has claimed that just about all the participants in his studies operated from theories-in-use or values consistent with Model I It involves making inferences about another person s behaviour without checking whether they are valid and advocating one s own views abstractly without explaining or illustrating one s reasoning
Argyris s Models Model I The theories-in-use are shaped by an implicit disposition to winning (and to avoid embarrassment). The primary action strategy looks to the unilateral control of the environment and task plus the unilateral protection of self and others. Exposing actions, thoughts and feelings can make people vulnerable to the reaction of others.
Argyris s Models For example: If my behaviour is driven by my not wanting to be seen as incompetent, this may lead me to hide things from myself and others, in order to avoid feelings of incompetence. Therefore our potential for growth and learning is seriously impaired.
Argyris s Models Model I theory-in-use characteristics The governing Values of Model I are: Win, do not lose Suppress negative feelings Emphasize rationality Primary Strategies are: Control environment and task unilaterally Protect self and others unilaterally
Argyris s Models Model I theory-in-use characteristics Usually operationalized by: advocating courses of action which discourage inquiry e.g.. "Lets not talk about the past, that's over." Treating ones' own views as obviously correct Face-saving moves such as leaving potentially embarrassing facts unstated Consequences include: Defensive relationships Low freedom of choice Reduced production of valid information Little public testing of ideas
Argyris s Models Model II The significant features of Model II include the ability to call upon good quality data and to make inferences. It looks to include the views and experiences of participants rather than seeking to impose a view upon the situation. For example, if my behaviour is driven by wanting to be competent, honest evaluation of my behaviour by myself and others would be welcome and useful
Argyris s Models Theories should be made explicit and tested, positions should be reasoned and open to exploration by others. In other words, Model II can be seen as dialogical and more likely to be found in settings and organizations that look to shared leadership.
Argyris s Models It looks to: Emphasize common goals and mutual influence. Encourage open communication, and to publicly test assumptions and beliefs. Combine advocacy with inquiry
Argyris s Models Model II characteristics The governing values of Model II include: Valid information Free and informed choice Internal commitment Strategies include: Sharing control Participation in design and implementation of action
Argyris s Models Model II characteristics Operationalized by: Attribution and evaluation illustrated with relatively directly observable data Surfacing conflicting view Encouraging public testing of evaluations Consequences should include: Minimally defensive relationships High freedom of choice Increased likelihood of double-loop learning