xii Special Education in Contemporary Society Detailed Contents Preface Key Features of the Text Acknowledgments xxv xxix xxxi PART I. Foundations of Special Education 1. Special Education in Context: People, Concepts, and Perspectives 3 Definitions and Terminology 4 Exceptional Children 4 Disability Versus Handicap 5 Developmentally Delayed and At-Risk 6 First Person: Elizabeth Perceptions and Impressions 7 Special Education 7 Suggestions for the Classroom: Suggestions for Communicating About Individuals With Disabilities 8 Categories and Labels 10 Prevalence of Children and Young Adults With Disabilities 12 Definitions and Difficulties 12 Number of Children and Young Adults Served 13 A Brief History of the Development of Special Education 16 Pioneers of Special Education 16 The Establishment of Institutions 17 Special Education in the Public Schools 19 Professionals Who Work With Individuals With Exceptionalities 20 Insights: A Timeline of Key Dates in the History of Special Education in the United States 21 Consultative Services 23 Service Delivery Teams 23 Cooperative Teaching 25 One Teach, One Observe 26 One Teach, One Support 26 Station Teaching 26 Parallel Teaching 26 Alternative Teaching 27 Team Teaching 28 Universal Design for Learning 29 Exceptionality Across the Life Span 31 Infants/Toddlers and Preschoolers With Special Needs 31 Adolescents and Young Adults With Disabilities 33
2. Policies, Practices, and Programs 43 Litigation and Legislation Affecting Special Education 43 Key Judicial Decisions 44 Individuals With Disabilities Education Act: 1975 1997 44 Educational Reform: Standards-Based Education 53 No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 54 Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 55 First Person: Lisa Teaching in the Age of Accountability 56 Civil Rights Legislation 59 Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 59 Public Law 101 336 (Americans With Disabilities Act) 61 Public Law 110 325 (the Americans With Disabilities Act Amendments of 2008) 61 Identification and Assessment of Individual Differences 62 Referral and Assessment for Special Education 63 Prereferral 63 Referral 63 Assessment 65 Instructional Programming and Appropriate Placement 66 Insights: Assessment Accommodations 67 Designing Individualized Instructional Programs 68 Individualized Education Program 68 Insights: Elements of a Meaningful IEP 69 Suggestions for the Classroom: Suggested Individualized Education Program Meeting Agenda 71 Individualized Family Service Plan 72 Service Delivery Options: Where a Special Education Is Provided 73 Educational Placements 74 A Cascade of Service Delivery Options 74 A Contemporary Challenge 75 3. Cultural and Linguistic Diversity and Exceptionality 85 Cultural Diversity: The Changing Face of a Nation 85 Insights: Cultural and Linguistic Diversity Quiz 86 Cultural Diversity in the Teaching Profession 87 From Assimilation to Cultural Pluralism 87 Terminology of Cultural Differences 88 Describing Diversity 90 Multicultural Education, Bilingual Education, and Student Diversity 91 Multicultural Education: Concepts and Characteristics 91 Bilingual Education: Concepts and Characteristics 91 Insights: Instructional Options for Students Who Are Bilingual 94 First Person: Jenny Teaching English Language Learners 95 Bilingual Special Education: Concepts and Characteristics 95 Disproportional Representation of Minority Students in Special Education Programs 97 Office for Civil Rights Survey Data 98 Factors Contributing to Over- and Underrepresentation 100 Consequences of Disproportional Representation 102
Issues in Assessing Students From Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Groups 102 Assessment Challenges 103 Suggestions for the Classroom: Recommendations for Assessing Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Pupils 104 Assessment Safeguards 104 Assessment Innovations 105 Contemporary Assessment Strategies 106 Assessment Recommendations 106 Educational Programming for Students With Exceptionalities Who Are Culturally and Linguistically Diverse 107 Suggestions for the Classroom: Guidelines for Selecting and Evaluating Instructional Materials 108 4. Parents, Families, and Exceptionality 113 Parent Professional Relationships: Changing Roles 113 Antagonistic and Adversarial Relationships 114 Building Working Relationships 115 Parent Empowerment and Family-Centered Relationships 116 A Family Systems Approach 117 The Effects of a Child s Disability on Parents and the Family 121 Stages of Parental Reaction to Disability 121 Disability and the Family 123 Marital Relationships 123 Mothers of Children With Disabilities 124 Fathers of Children With Disabilities 124 Siblings of Children With Disabilities 124 First Person: Kristina Daydreams 125 First Person: Mindy The Other Children 127 Grandparents of Children With Disabilities 128 Working With Families Who Are Culturally and Linguistically Diverse 128 Suggestions for the Classroom: Recommendations for Providing Families With Culturally Sensitive Services 130 Cultural Reactions to Disability 130 Suggestions for Facilitating Family and Professional Partnerships 131 PART II. A Study of Individuals With Special Needs 5. Individuals With Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 139 Defining Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation: An Evolving Process 142 1961 AAIDD Definition 142 1973 AAIDD Definition 143 1983 AAIDD Definition 144 1992 AAIDD Definition 144 2002 AAIDD Definition 145 2010 AAIDD Definition 146 Assessing Intellectual Ability and Adaptive Behavior 147 Intellectual Ability 147 Adaptive Behavior 149
Classification of Individuals With Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 150 An Etiological Perspective 151 Intellectual Deficits 151 An Educational Perspective 151 Levels of Support 152 A Brief History of the Field 153 Early Civilizations 153 The Middle Ages 154 Early Optimism 154 Protection and Pessimism 154 The Emergence of Public Education for Students With Intellectual Disabilities 155 Prevalence of Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 155 Etiology of Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 157 Prenatal Contributions 157 Perinatal Conditions 161 Postnatal Factors 162 Prevention of Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 163 Characteristics of Individuals With Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 164 Learning Characteristics 165 Social and Behavioral Characteristics 167 Educational Considerations 168 Where Are Students With Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation Educated? 169 Educational Programming Options 169 Suggestions for the Classroom: Characteristics of Effective Teachers 173 Instructional Methodology 173 Effective Instructional Practices: Teaching Pupils With Intellectual Disabilities 175 Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 176 Suggestions for the Classroom: Using Scaffolding in the Classroom 178 Services for Young Children With Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 179 Transition Into Adulthood 180 Adults With Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 182 Family Issues 184 Issues of Diversity 185 First Person: Meredith In Her Own Words 185 Technology and Individuals With Intellectual Disabilities or Mental Retardation 186 Trends, Issues, and Controversies 186 6. Individuals With Learning Disabilities 193 Defining Learning Disabilities 195 National Advisory Committee on Handicapped Children 196
Federal Definition of Learning Disabilities 196 Association for Children With Learning Disabilities 198 The Continuing Debate 198 A Brief History of the Field 199 Foundation Phase 199 Transition Phase 200 Integration Phase 200 Current Phase 201 Prevalence of Learning Disabilities 201 Etiology of Learning Disabilities 202 Acquired Trauma 202 Genetic/Hereditary Influences 203 Biochemical Abnormalities 203 Environmental Possibilities 204 Characteristics of Individuals With Learning Disabilities 204 Learning Characteristics 206 Social and Emotional Problems 210 Attention Problems and Hyperactivity 210 Assessment of Learning Disabilities 211 Assessment Decisions 211 Response to Intervention 212 Assessment Strategies 214 Educational Considerations 215 Where Are Students With Learning Disabilities Educated? 216 Instructional Approaches 217 Effective Instructional Practices: Teaching Reading 217 Suggestions for the Classroom: Suggestions for Teaching Students With Learning Disabilities 221 Services for Young Children With Learning Disabilities 221 Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Learning Disabilities 222 Transition Into Adulthood 225 First Person: Christopher In His Own Words 226 Adults With Learning Disabilities 227 Insights: Young Adults With Learning Disabilities Speak Out: The Truth About Having a Learning Disability 229 Family Issues 229 Issues of Diversity 230 Technology and Individuals With Learning Disabilities 231 Trends, Issues, and Controversies 231 Challenges in Service Delivery: The Full Inclusion Movement 231 Insights: A Reaction to Full Inclusion: A Reaffirmation of the Right of Students With Learning Disabilities to a Continuum of Services 232 Educational Reform Movement 233 7. Individuals With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 239 Defining Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 241 A Brief History of the Field 241 Prevalence of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 243 Etiology of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 244
Neurological Dysfunction 244 Hereditary Factors 245 Environmental Factors 246 Characteristics of Individuals With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 246 First Person: Helen Good Things Come in Small Packages 247 Behavioral Inhibition and Executive Functioning 248 Social and Emotional Issues 249 Comorbidity 249 Assessment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 249 Medical Evaluation 250 Behavioral/Educational Evaluation 250 Educational Considerations 251 Where Are Students With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Educated? 252 Suggestions for the Classroom: Accommodations to Help Students With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 253 Functional Behavioral Assessment 255 Self-Regulation/Monitoring 255 Home School Collaboration 255 Effective Instructional Practices: Managing Students With ADHD 256 Instructional Modification 257 Medication 259 Insights: Myths and Misunderstandings About Stimulant Medication: A Quiz for Teachers 261 Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 262 Adolescents and Adults With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 264 Educational/Vocational Outcomes 265 Marital Relations 265 Issues of Diversity 265 8. Individuals With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 271 Defining Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 273 Four Dimensions of Behavior 274 Disturbed and Disturbing Behavior 274 Transient Nature of Problematic Behavior 274 Typical and Atypical Behavior 275 First Person: Anonymous My Eagle Scout 275 Variability in Cultural and Social Standards of Behavior 277 Federal Definition 277 Contemporary Terminology and Definitions 278 Classification of Individuals With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 279 Clinically Derived Classification Systems 279 Statistically Derived Classification Systems 280 A Brief History of the Field 281 The Mental Hygiene Movement 281 Early Research on Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 282 The Birth of a Specialized Field of Study 282 The Emergence of Conceptual Models 283
Prevalence of Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 284 Etiology of Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 285 Biological Risk Factors 285 Psychosocial Risk Factors 285 Prevention of Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 288 Research on Resiliency 288 Research on Positive Behavioral Support 289 Characteristics of Children and Youth With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 291 Learning Characteristics 291 Social Characteristics 292 Language/Communication Characteristics 292 Assessing Students With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 292 Assessment Strategies 293 Recent Trends in Assessment of Students With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 293 Educational Considerations 296 Where Are Students With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders Educated? 296 Physical Environment Interventions 297 Suggestions for the Classroom: Suggestions for Effective Scheduling 298 Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 300 Academic and Instructional Interventions 301 Behavioral and Cognitive Behavioral Interventions 303 Special Programmatic Concerns 305 Suggestions for the Classroom: Guidelines for Establishing Classroom Rules 306 Effective Instructional Practices: Behavioral Principles 307 Services for Young Children With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 309 Transition Into Adulthood 310 Adults With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 311 Family-Centered Interventions 312 Issues of Diversity 313 Technology and Individuals With Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 314 Trends, Issues, and Controversies 314 Teacher Shortages 315 Public Policy and Societal Attitudes 315 Lack of Interagency Collaboration 315 Creating Systems of Care 315 9. Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders 321 Defining Autism Spectrum Disorders: An Evolving Process 324 Classification of Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders 325 American Psychiatric Association and the Multiaxial System 326 Pervasive Developmental Disorders 326 Asperger Syndrome 326 Individuals With Disabilities Education Act 328 Other Considerations for Classification 328 Associated Conditions 328
A Brief History of the Field 329 Psychogenic Theories 329 Organic Theories 329 Behavioral Theories 329 Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorders 330 Etiology of Autism Spectrum Disorders 330 Characteristics of Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders 332 Theory of Mind 333 Social Interaction Symptoms 333 First Person: Jean-Paul Think About Thinking 333 Communication Symptoms 334 Repetitive and Restrictive Behaviors 335 Other Characteristics 335 Assessment of Autism Spectrum Disorders 336 Intellectual Assessment 336 Insights: Examples of Splinter Skills 337 Screening and Diagnosis 337 Educational Considerations 338 Where Are Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders Educated? 338 Instructional Approaches 338 Suggestions for the Classroom: Tips for Teaching High-Functioning Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders 340 Effective Instructional Practices: Social Stories 341 Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders 342 Services for Young Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders 342 Early Intervention Services 343 Communication Deficits and Safety Issues 344 Curriculum Issues 344 Preschool Programs 344 Transition Into Adulthood 345 Adults With Autism Spectrum Disorders 345 Insights: Transition Planning: Questions to Address 346 Supervised Group and Apartment Living 347 Adult Foster Care 348 Residential Services 348 Employment Options 348 Family Issues 348 Issues of Diversity 349 Technology and Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorders 349 High-Tech Devices 350 Low-Tech Devices 350 Trends, Issues, and Controversies 351 10. Individuals With Speech and Language Impairments 357 The Nature of Speech, Language, and Communication 359 Insights: The Genetics of Speech 363 Defining Speech and Language Impairments 364 Classifying Speech and Language Impairments 364 Speech Disorders 364 Insights: Questions and Answers About Articulation Problems 367 Insights: Questions and Answers About Stuttering 368
Language Disorders 369 Central Auditory Processing Disorder (CAPD) 370 Historical Perspectives 372 Prevalence of Speech and Language Impairments 373 Etiology of Speech and Language Impairments 373 Prevention of Speech and Language Impairments 374 Characteristics of Individuals With Speech and Language Impairments 376 Assessing Speech and Language Impairments 376 First Person: Emily A Journey Toward Success 378 Educational Considerations 381 Suggestions for the Classroom: Educational and Treatment Approaches for Central Auditory Processing Problems 382 Where Are Students With Speech and Language Impairments Served? 382 Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Speech and Language Impairments 384 Services for Young Children With Speech and Language Impairments 384 Effective Instructional Practices: Teaching Language Skills 386 Adolescents and Adults With Speech and Language Impairments 387 Family Issues 387 Issues of Diversity 387 Technology and Individuals With Speech and Language Impairments 388 Trends, Issues, and Controversies 389 11. Individuals With Hearing Impairments 395 Definitions and Concepts in the Field of Hearing Impairment 397 The Anatomy of the Auditory System 397 Classifications of Hearing Loss 398 Degree of Hearing Loss 399 Measurement of Hearing Impairment 400 Other Types of Hearing Assessment 401 Age of Onset 403 A Brief History of the Field 404 Prevalence of Hearing Impairment 406 Etiology of Hearing Impairment 407 Genetic/Hereditary Factors 407 Infections 409 Developmental Abnormalities 409 Environmental/Traumatic Factors 409 Characteristics of Individuals With Hearing Impairments 410 Intelligence 410 Speech and Language 410 Social Development 410 Educational Achievement 412 Assessment of Individuals With Hearing Impairments 412 Cognitive Assessment 412 Communication Assessment 413 Personal/Social/Behavioral Assessment 413 Educational Considerations 413 Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Hearing Impairments 416 Where Are Students With Hearing Impairments Served? 417
Suggestions for the Classroom: Suggestions for Teaching Students With Hearing Impairments 418 First Person: Mindy Believing in Yourself 420 Instructional Interventions 421 Services for Young Children With Hearing Impairments 426 Effective Instructional Practices: Promoting Language Development in Young Children With Hearing Impairments 426 Transition and Individuals With Hearing Impairments 427 Services for Adults With Hearing Impairments 428 Family Issues 429 Family Reaction 429 Siblings and Grandparents 429 Issues of Diversity 430 Technology and Individuals With Hearing Impairments 431 Hearing Aids and Auditory Training Devices 431 Computers 432 Insights: How to Check a Hearing Aid 433 Alerting Devices 434 Real-Time Captioning/Interpreting Technology 434 Captioning 435 Telecommunication Devices 435 Cochlear Implants 435 Trends, Issues, and Controversies 437 12. Individuals With Visual Impairments 445 Defining Visual Impairments 447 The Eye and How It Works 448 Classification of Visual Impairments 449 A Brief History of Visual Impairments 451 Prevalence of Visual Impairments 452 The Vision Process and Etiology of Visual Impairments 453 Prevention of Visual Impairments 454 Early Detection 454 Eye Safety 455 Characteristics of Individuals With Visual Impairments 455 Academic Performance 455 Social and Emotional Development 456 Vocational Skills 457 Assessment of Students With Visual Impairments 458 Functional Vision Evaluation 459 Learning Media 460 Educational Assessment and Program Planning 461 Eligibility Determination 462 Educational Considerations 463 Where Are Students With Visual Impairments Educated? 464 Instructional Considerations 464 First Person: Carrie The Face of Different 465 Effective Instructional Practices: Accommodations for Students With Visual Impairments 466 Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Visual Impairments 467
Young Children With Visual Impairments 468 Suggestions for the Classroom: Orientation and Mobility Tips 470 Transition Into Adulthood 471 Adults With Visual Impairments 472 Family Issues 472 Issues of Diversity 473 Technology and Individuals With Visual Impairments 474 Legal Aspects 474 Technology and Literacy 474 Trends, Issues, and Controversies 477 13. Individuals With Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 485 Defining Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 488 A Brief History of the Field 490 Early History 490 Emergence of Public Education 491 Prevalence of Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 491 Etiology of Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 491 Chromosomal and Genetic Causes 492 First Person: Virginia One Day at a Time 493 Teratogenic Causes 493 Prematurity and Complications of Pregnancy 494 Acquired Causes 494 Characteristics of Individuals With Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 494 Characteristics of Students With Orthopedic Impairments 495 Characteristics of Students With Multiple Disabilities 500 Characteristics of Students With Traumatic Brain Injury 501 Suggestions for the Classroom: Strategies That May Be Used With Students With Traumatic Brain Injury 503 Characteristics of Students With Other Health Impairments 503 Suggestions for the Classroom: Steps for Teachers to Take When a Tonic Clonic Seizure Occurs 505 Characteristics of Students With Deaf Blindness 506 Assessment of Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 507 Assessment of Students With Deaf Blindness 507 Educational Considerations 508 Where Are Students With Physical or Health Disabilities Educated? 508 Impact on School Performance 510 Meeting Educational Needs 514 Making Inclusion Work: Individuals With Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 516 Effective Instructional Practices: Teaching Students With Physical or Health Disabilities 519 Meeting the Educational Needs of Students Who Are Deaf Blind 519
Services for Young Children With Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 522 Transition Into Adulthood 523 Adults With Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 524 Family Issues 525 Issues of Diversity 525 Technology and Individuals With Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low-Incidence Disabilities 526 Computer Assistive Technology 526 Augmentative Communication 528 Positioning and Seating Devices 528 Mobility Devices 529 Environmental Control and Assistive Technology for Daily Living 529 Assistive Technology for Play and Recreation 530 Trends, Issues, and Controversies 530 14. Individuals Who Are Gifted and Talented 537 Insights: FAQS (Frequently Asked Questions) About Children and Youth Who Are Gifted and Talented 539 Defining Giftedness: Refining the Meaning 541 Assessing Giftedness and Talent 544 Differences Among Children Who Are Gifted and Talented 547 A Brief History of the Field of Gifted and Talented Education 548 The First Half of the Twentieth Century: Pioneering the Field 548 The 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s: Establishing Foundations for the Field 549 The 1980s and 1990s: The Field Matures and Provides Focus for School Reform 550 The Twenty-First Century: Challenges and Promise Present 552 Prevalence of Giftedness and Talent 552 Etiology of Giftedness and Talent 552 Characteristics of Individuals Who Are Gifted and Talented 553 Educational Considerations 554 Differentiation 555 Insights: Myths and Truths About Gifted Students 556 Suggestions for the Classroom: Differentiated Programming: What It Is and What It Isn t 557 Instructional Strategies 557 First Person: Patrice One Size Does Not Fit All 560 Service Delivery Options 561 Making Inclusion Work: Individuals Who Are Gifted and Talented 562 Effective Instructional Practices: Differentiated Instruction 564 First Person: Graham Summer Programming 568 Services for Young Children Who Are Gifted and Talented 569 Adolescents and Adults Who Are Gifted and Talented 570 Family Issues 571 Issues of Diversity 572 Students With Gifts and Talents and Disabilities 572 Girls Who Are Gifted 573 Identifying and Serving Children From Diverse Backgrounds 575
Technology and Individuals Who Are Gifted and Talented 577 Trends, Issues, and Controversies 578 Striving for World-Class Standards 578 Equity and Excellence 579 Full Inclusion 579 Services for Gifted Students Instead of the Gifted Program 579 Talent Development 580 Postscript 587 Appendix A: Federal Definitions of Disabilities 588 Appendix B: Professional Standards 590 Glossary 615 References 628 Photo Credits 658 Author Index 660 Subject Index 673 About the Contributors 693