Manua on FUNCTIONAL LITERACY FOR INDIGENOUS PEOPLES UNESCO I )RNCII AL REGIONAL OFFICE FOR ASIA AND I IHE PACIFIC Bangkok, 1000
UNESCO Principa Regiona Ofice for Asia and the Pacific Asia-Pacific Programme of Education for A Manua on functiona iteracy for indigenous peopes Bangkok: UNESCO PROAP, 1999 94 p 1 LITERACY PROGRAMMES 2 EDUCATIONAL PERSONNEL TRAINING 3 TEACHING MATERIALS 4 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 5 GUIDES 6 INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS 7 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC 1 Tite 37924 0 UNESCO 1999 Pubished by the UNESCO Principa Regiona Office for Asia and the Pacific PO Box 967, Prakanong Post Office Bangkok 10110, Thaiand Printed in Thaiand The designations empoyed and the presentation of materia throughout the pubication do not impy the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the ega status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning its frontiers or boundaries AP/99iM/347-500 -
CONTENTS Chapter one Part I Part 2 Chapter Two What is Literacy? What is Literacy Education? Introduction What is Literacy? What is Literacy Education? The Literacy Situation for Indigenous and Ethnic Minorities in Seected Asian Countries,, Introduction, 9 9 Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Profie of Ten Countries in East and Southeast Asia Genera Features, Chaenges and Difficuties The Chaenges and Possibiities for a Learning Society _ 9 14 16 Chapter Three Part I Part 2 Part 3 Part 4 Part 5 Part 6 The APPEAL Training Materias for Literacy Personne (ATLP) Introduction 19 The Need for Literacy Trainin, u Materias Identification of Literacy Training Leves Institutiona Structure and Materias for Literacy Training Literacy Training Curricuum The Materias as Exempars The Aims of the Scheme 19 20 20 21 21 22 23
C 0 N T E N T S (cont d) Chapter Four : Needs Assessment in Indigenous Communities 25 Introduction 25 Part 1 : Getting to Know the Community 26 Part2 : Getting to Know Who the Learners Are 30 Part3 : Identifying Usefu Daiy and Potentia Future Needs for Reading, Writing and Numeracy within the Ethnic Community 32 Chapter Five : Adapting the ATLP Curricuum and Deveoping Literacy Training Materias for Indigenous Communities 4 1 Introduction 41 Part 1 : Characteristics of Effective Learning Materias for Indigenous Peopes 41 Part2 : Deveoping a Literacy Curricuum with Functiona Content 43 Part3 : Adapting the ATLP Curricuum for Indigenous Peopes 46 Part4 : Guideines for the Preparation of Training Materias 51 Part5 : Programme Deivery 56 Chapter Six : Panning, Monitoring and Evauation a Literacy Programme for Indigenous Peopes 59 Introduction 59 Part : Panning for a Literacy Programme 59 Part2 : Monitoring and Evauating a Literacy Programme 63 ii - --
C 0 N T E N T S (cont d) Chapter Seven : Promotion of a Literacy Programme for Indigenous Peopes: How to Attract and Retain Participants,_, 73 Introduction, 73 Part 1 : Linking Literacy Training to Learners Lives,* 74 Part 2 : Trainers, Learners and Cassroom Processes 75 Part3 : The First Group Meeting 77 Chapter Eight : Post-Literacy and Continuing Education 79 Introduction 79 Part 1 : The Impact of a Rich Educationa Environment on Continuing Education 8 1 Part2 : Continuing Education Programmes 82 Part3 : Community Learning Centres (CLCs) 83 Gossary 85 Bibiography 93 III -
FOREWORD In the pursuance of UNESCO s goas which incude the promotion of primary education, iteracy and continuing education for a chidren, youth and aduts, the Asia-Pacific Programme of Education for A (APPEAL) has adopted various strategies in its priority programme areas, which are: 1 Reaching the unreached, the underserved and the disadvantaged popuation groups in rura and urban areas, with a particuar emphasis on girs and women s education; 2 Promoting community participation and ownership; and 3 Improving the reevance and quaity of basic education and enhancing the earning achievements of a chidren, youth and aduts UNESCO has recognized that to participate more activey in the deveopment of society indigenous communities, incuding triba peope and ethnic groups in the Asia-Pacific region have to make the transition from ora iteracy traditions to cutures that combine ora and written iteracy The APPEAL Manua on Functiona Literacy for Indigenous Peopes has been devised as a practica guide for training future trainers of iteracy programmes in indigenous communities It is argey based on the more genera APPEAL Training Materias for Literaq Personne (ATLP) aready in use in many countries in the region The manua is particuary designed for Leve B training personne (ie, provincia/district supervisors and trainers of trainers) The manua is divided into eight chapters Chapters One to Three give trainers both an overview of the main issues reated to iteracy as we as an overview of how these issues transfer to the particuar iteracy needs of indigenous peopes in the Asia-Pacific region Chapters Four to Seven are more practica in nature They give trainers direct support to estabish, run and promote iteracy training programmes in indigenous communities Chapter Eight shows the transition to continuing education The manua has been conceived to support interactive iteracy training programmes where trainers are activey engaged in the earning process In this sense it adopts a earner-centred approach to training and functiona content areas Each chapter foows a common structure The objectives of the chapter set out are foowed by an introduction, tasks, content and review activities Tasks are meant to stimuate earners invovement in refecting on the objectives set out at the beginning of the chapter Where appropriate at the end of a chapter, some extra materias are provided for reproduction and direct use by the trainers A gossary of words is provided at the end of the manua The APPEAL Manua buids on experiences gained during two workshops: (i) the Second Subregiona Workshop on the Deveopment of Basic Literacy Learning Materias for Minority Peopes in Asia and the Pacific (ACCU, 1994) and (ii) the Regiona Workshop for Education
Personne Invoved in Education for Cutura Minorities (UNESCO, 1996) Severa iteracy experts in the region have contributed to the book UNESCO woud in particuar ike to acknowedge the substantive contributions given by Joseph Lo Bianco and Chanta Crozet, Austraia, and Maria L C Doronia, Phiippines We aso gratefuy acknowedge the assistance and research of Robyn Hodge for the eary draft of the manua and G Quinn s and D Tryon s vauabe comments on the draft Bangkok, November 1999
Chapter One WHAT IS LITERACY? WHAT IS LITERACY EDUCATION? Objectives: To become famiiar with different genera and common definitions of iteracy and iteracy education To think about what coud be usefu definitions of iteracy and iteracy education suited to the needs of indigenous peopes in different communities n Introduction In the past, peope were caed iterate or iiterate depending on whether they coud or coud not write their own names Today the word iterate or iteracy means a ot more than this What is meant by iteracy education (or teaching iteracy) has aso changed over time and means different things depending on who is doing or organizing the teaching of a iteracy programme, and who the earners are Trainers in iteracy for indigenous peopes can benefit from knowing how others have thought about iteracy and iteracy education In this chapter, we expore some of the many definitions of iteracy and iteracy education PART 1 WHAT IS LITERACY Does iteracy mean just to know how to read or write? Does it mean to know how to use reading and writing skis to achieve other things in one s community and country? Definitions of iteracy have aso incuded the recognition of numbers and basic mathematica signs and symbos within texts This ski used to be caed numeraq In practice, however, peope need to understand and use mathematica skis in a range of contexts, in a simiar way to their reading and writing skis Simpe recognition of signs and symbos has given way to a broader definition of numeracy that incudes using an understanding of mathematics as a too to make a particuar sense of the word
Of great reevance to future iteracy trainers in indigenous communities is the recent argument from cross-cutura studies of iteracy which warns against the common tendency to devaue the ora cutures of indigenous peope and to misguidingy construe the deveopment of iteracy skis as automaticay and excusivey eading to the deveopment of ogica thinking (Waton 1996) Adherents to this ine of thought now argue that to be successfu, iteracy programmes in indigenous communities need to be perceived by the peope of the oca cutures as an expansion of their existing skis rather than the remedy for the ack of skis In essence, this recognizes that a cutures are iterate; so, for instance, cutures which use signs and symbos rather than printed words as a form of iteracy can be said to function competenty within their form of iteracy Literacy is universa, but it is reaized in cuturay specific ways However, because we ive in a print-saturated word, those cutures that depend excusivey on ora iteracy can be at a serious disadvantage in the modem word where written iteracy is so powerfu In an attempt to reduce the divide between societies with ora iteracy traditions and those with written iteracy, recent redefinitions of iteracy are now incuding a variety of modes of expression such as art, music or dance (Waton 1996) A broad definition of iteracy can therefore now span writing and reading skis in the strict sense of the term, as we as a other forms of cutura expression which do not use spoken anguage Foowing this ine of thought is the idea that the successfu acquisition of writing and reading skis is best achieved from buiding these skis on existing iteracy skis in the broader sense of the term In other words, iteracy training needs to be contextuaized and presented to indigenous peope as one form of expression and communication - admittedy a form of expression with a ot of advantages - rather than the most evoved form of expression and communication Athough iteracy has these wider meanings, understanding, critica awareness and the capabiity of entering into the cuture of iterate practices are a buit on a mastery of the essentia practices of reading and writing - making meaning in written form, and extracting meaning from writing Reading and writing capabiity are essentia first steps to understanding and using reading and writing An eary step to iteracy is making sound-sign connections This means knowing that certain signs (graphemes) have recurring sounds (in aphabet or syabe-based writing systems), or that certain signs mean certain concepts (in character or ideogram-based writing systems) Associating the sign with the sound or meaning is the initia step in earning to read and write This co-occurrence of sound-sign-meaning wi commence a process of more rapid meaning-based iteracy For exampe, in reading aphabet-based texts, a reader uses three main skis: (a) a sound-symbo connection, (b) a syntax connection (knowing what words are ikey to foow in order) and (c) a meaning connection (predicting new meanings from existing ones) A reader ooks for cues in a text: sounding out sounds is the most basic one, whie predicting meaning is the most deveoped strategy of a reader When we write, we start from meaning (what we wish to say) and then convert this to symbos Taking into account the genera comments we have just made, you can now proceed to the foowing task
In the section beow we present two genera and common categories of iteracy definitions from different sources Choose the category which is most suited to the concerns of the training group You might choose to read a definitions In sma groups (two peope or more) discuss each definition you have read Tak about what makes sense to you and what does not Category 1 Definitions of Literacy Note: In the foowing definitions, the word text or texts means any piece of writing, for exampe, a sign on the road, a abe on a box, a poster, a short message, a etter or a book 1 Literacy means to break the code, that is, being abe to recognize what etters or groups of etters represent different sounds in one anguage, what the different punctuation signs mean, what the conventiona graphic design and format of different texts means, what graphic symbos represent in different technoogica texts 2 Literacy means to participate in the meanings of text, incuding understanding and composing meaningfu texts (eg, short written messages, etters or written reports) This incudes knowing how to use grammar conventionay to write in a way which makes sense and knowing the meaning of words 3 Literacy means knowing how to use written texts functionay This means knowing what, how and for whom to write different kinds of texts in a particuar situation 4 Literacy means to be abe to anayze texts criticay, incuding asking the questions, How is this text trying to infuence me? (eg, advertising), How do I fee when I read this text?, Who am I writing for, and what do I want to achieve when I am writing this text? Category 2 Definitions of Literacy 5 Literacy is a characteristic acquired by individuas in varying degrees from just above none to an indeterminate upper eve Some individuas are more iterate or ess iterate than others, but it is reay not possibe to speak of iterate and iiterate persons as two distinct categories (UNESCO 1957 cited in Oxenham 1980) 6 A person is functionay iterate when s/he has acquired the essentia knowedge and skis which enabe him (or her) to engage in a those activities in which iteracy is required for effective functioning in his (or her) group and community, and whose attainments in reading, writing and arithmetic make it possibe for him (or her) to continue to use these skis towards his (or her) own and the community s deveopment (UNESCO EWLP cited in Oxenham 1980) 1 The definitions of iteracy in these categories are mainy taken from Lo Bianco and Freebody (I 997:26) adapted from Freebody and Luke (1990)
7 The concepts functiona iteracy and functiona iiteracy were introduced to distinguish the higher-order eve of abiities that separates those who are barey abe to read and write ( basic iiterates ) from those community, and at home ( functiona iterates ) (OECD 1992:S) 8 Effective iteracy is intrinsicay purposefu, fexibe and dynamic and invoves the integration of speaking, istening and critica thinking with reading and writing (Dawkins 1991) 9 What we ca writing need not aways be defined by the Gutenberg tradition of script on paper which has been reproduced by the printing press In a broader sense, writing is definabe as any sort of meaningfu inscription, and in the case of Aborigina Austraia (for exampe) this woud incude sand paintings and drawings body markings, paintings as we as engravings on bark or stone (Davis et a 1990: 3) 10 The very notion of iteracy has evoved; in addition to reading and writing and numeracy skis, peope now aso require technoogica and computer iteracy, environmenta iteracy, and socia competence Educationa insitutions have a major roe in preventing the socia and economic excusion, and cutura aienation, that can resut from a ack of appropriate skis (OECD 1996) Can you now make up a definition of iteraqy which is appropriate for the iteracy needs of most indigenous peope or aternativey to the iteracy needs of an indigenous community that you know we? PART 2 WHAT IS LITERACY EDUCATION? Part Two of this chapter is divided into two sections In Section One we ook at issues reated to the earning of iteracy skis in a first and second anguage and in Section Two we ook at the practice of iteracy education and attitudes to earning iteracy 1 Learning Literacy in One s Mother Tongue and Learning Literacy in a Second Language Indigenous peope are often mutiingua They may speak for exampe the anguage of the community/tribe they beong to (their mother tongue), a regiona anguage and the nationa anguage Leves of proficiency in the different anguages can vary enormousy between individuas For instance, an edery woman might know her mother tongue very we but ony speak a few words of the nationa anguage, whereas a young teenager might speak his/her mother tongue not as we as the regiona or nationa anguage Indigenous communities and individuas within them can aso give different status to the various anguages they speak One indigenous community or individua might vaue the regiona anguage more than the mother tongue or viceversa There can aso be enormous gaps between generations where for instance younger peope vaue the nationa anguage more than the regiona anguage or their mother tongue When they
exist, scripts can aso vary greaty between anguages it is essentia for iteracy trainers to become aware of the various anguage backgrounds that earners bring to iteracy casses and to vaue this mutiingua diversity This is a positive resource One of the first issues trainers face is to decide in which anguage to train earners There is no simpe answer to this issue Each case needs to be negotiated taking into account not ony the views of the participants in iteracy programmes, but aso of the wider indigenous community concerned The poicies and expectations of the wider society and the context of iteracy in a given society wi aso impact on the choice of medium of instruction Parents and eders views in this case need aso to be sought and respected We show beow different modes of anguage choice and use in iteracy training programmes: a) Learners earn and are taught iteracy skis in their mother tongue b) Learners earn iteracy in a second anguage and are instructed party in the second anguage and party in their mother tongue c) Learners earn and are taught iteracy skis ony in a second anguage It is usefu for trainers to know that transfer of iteracy skis from one anguage to another is more ikey to occur between anguages which have simiar scripts (eg, anguages with roman scripts such as Engish and Spanish) When anguages have a very different script, however, this transfer might not be so easy (Lo Bianco & Freebody 199759) The earning of iteracy skis wi aso be easier in the anguage earners aready speak However, not a anguages have extensive written iteratures and for earners of such anguages, initia iteracy in the mother tongue wi be a transition programme to iteracy in a second anguage, Trainers need to be aware that if earners are earning iteracy skis in a second anguage, they wi need extra support to be abe to match unfamiiar sounds to orthographic representation (written forms) 2 The Practice of Literacy Education In this section we ook at both the teaching of iteracy skis and persona variabes which affect the earning of iteracy a) The Teaching of Literacy Skis Research into the teaching of iteracy has shown that trainers have based their practice on three main approaches (Lo Bianco & Freeboy 1997): the skis approach; the growth and heritage approach; and the critica-cutura approach Each approach represents a necessary component of a curricuum and teaching programme Each need not be totay separate from the others In reaity, many trainers tend to be ecectic and combine various approaches to teaching iteracy Athough there is no best method for teaching iteracy, trainers who can criticay think about their approach to teaching tend to make the best teachers It is in this sense that it is usefu for trainers to know what are the main trends in iteracy education This wi hep them deveop conscious
teaching practices, that is, it wi hep them to recognize what approach(es) they use (or wi use) in their everyday teaching Once a trainer becomes aware of the practices s/he uses in the cassroom, it is easier to engage in a continuous improvement of one s practice Read and discuss in sma groups the three approaches for the practice of iteracy education as they are described beow 1 The Skis Approach This approach is based on teaching the fundamenta coding conventions of the written script Teaching of the written script must be systematic and expicit, with a concentration on the connections between sounds and graphic symbos Teachers who foow this approach beieve there is a strong ink between earners deveopment of iteracy skis and the increasing refinement of psychoogica processes 2 The Growth and Heritage Approach Teachers who foow this approach beieve it is important to provide natura, activity-based earning conditions simiar to those beieved to infuence the eary acquisition of speech This approach does not favour direct expicit teaching of writing and reading skis Learners earn iteracy skis more by responding to natura needs of writing and reading and by being immersed in reading and writing activities from which they impicity earn rues The growth heritage approach emphasizes the importance of reading and writing as giving access to the vaued iterary heritage of a cuture 3 The Critica-cutura Approach Foowers of the critica-cutura approach beieve that earners need to be taught writing and reading skis expicity, but with an emphasis on how iteracy is connected to society Apart from teaching code-cracking at the word and etter eve, this approach favours a functiona view of reading and writing practices and texts Learners are encouraged to earn to criticay anayze the often sient cutura assumptions on which texts are based, and to see texts as having impicit cutura, even ideoogica, meanings b) Persona Variabes and the Learning of Literacy Literacy training programmes tend to focus soey on content and modes of instruction Persona variabes which affect the earning of iteracy, however, need to be taken into account and sometimes acted upon Abadzi (1994: 15) gives a ist of participant-reated variabes which impact on the success of iteracy earning It incudes: the physica heath of the earners their gender and whether in the given community both maes and femaes are expected to be iterate the number of sma chidren in the famiy group and who is responsibe for their care
the eve of parenta education the stabiity of home ife the opportunities which exist to practice iteracy outside the cassroom the attitudes and beiefs about iteracy and its roe in individua and cutura advancement Trainers need to be aware that such factors can affect earning outcomes They shoud try to bring soutions to probems whenever they can However, trainers are more ikey to have a direct impact on some issues (such as attitudes and beiefs of earners towards iteracy) than others Some indigenous peope might think they are too od to earn, others that not being iterate in a written anguage is norma and there is no need to change Trainers can hep change those negative feeings In Chapter Seven we come back to this issue when we consider how to promote iteracy programmes in indigenous communities What have you earnt in this chapter which you had not thought about before? Can you summarize what you see as the best definition of iteracy and iteraq education for indigenous peope? What are the broad approaches that you favour? What persona and socia factors wi infuence iteracy education in your training group?
Chapter Two THE LITERACY SITUATION FOR INDIGENOUS AND ETHNIC MINORITIES IN SELECTED ASIAN COUNTRIES Objectives: To describe the current state of iteracy amongst indigenous groups in seected Asian countries To appreciate the diversity of indigenous peopes and ethnic minorities throughout the region n Introduction Athough Asian societies have ancient and revered traditions of iteracy, there are many groups for whom written iteracy is non-existent This chapter is divided into three parts: Part 1: Profie of ten countries Part 2: Genera features, chaenges and difftcuties that these countries face Part 3: The chaenges and possibiities for a earning society PART 1 PROFILE OF TEN COUNTRIES IN EAST AND SOUTHEAST ASIA We are presenting beow summaries of information for ten countries in Asia based on information provided in the country reports presented in two workshops: 1 Regiona Workshop for Education Personne Invoved in Education for Cutura Minorities, Kunming, China, 1 1-15 December 1995 UNESCO 2 Second Sub-regiona Workshop on the Deveopment of Basic Literacy Learning Materias for Minority Peopes in Asia and the Pacific Chiang Rai, Thaiand, 22 February-5 March 1994* * Organized jointy by Asia/Pacific Cutura Centre for UNESCO (ACCU), Japan: Department of Nonforma Education, Ministry of Education, Thaiand, and Asia-Pacific Programme of Education for A (APPEAL), UNESCO Principa Regiona Office for Asia and the Pacific
1 Cambodia 5 China 2 Viet Nam 6 Lao PDR 3 Thaiand 7 Myanmar 4 Maaysia 8 Phiippines 9 Mongoia IO Indonesia Choose two or three countries of interest and read the information If working in a group, seect one country each and report back to the group about what you have earnt Pease contribute any other knowedge you have to enhance the group s appreciation of the eves and traditions of iteracy among indigenous peopes/ ethnic minorities 1 Cambodia The popuation of Cambodia is approximatey 97 miion Ethnic Khmers, predominanty Buddhist, constitute cose to 95 per cent of the popuation The remaining 5 per cent of the popuation are made up of 2 1 different ethnic groups These incude Cham, Vietnamese, Chinese, Lao, Tumpoun, Kui, Jarai, Kroeung, Phnong, Kavet, Steang, Prov, Thai, Krao, Robe, Por, Thmaun, Loemoon, Saoch and Kachek These ethnic groups are predominanty ocated in the northeastern provinces of Cambodia, the exceptions being city-dweing Chinese and Cham, and Vietnamese iving in the Mekong Deta The overa iteracy rate in Cambodia is approximatey 65 per cent The Roya Government aong with a number of internationa aid organizations (UNICEF, PASEC, REDD BARNA etc) has supported basic education through the formuation of a nationa education pan, and construction and repair of buidings, as we as materias production Basic education is provided via forma and non-forma systems of instruction At the primary eve, there is a nationa participation rate of cose to 80 per cent Most ethnic Chinese and ethnic Cham, for exampe, have access to forma education Instruction is in the Khmer anguage Non-forma education for ethnic minority groups in 1994-95 consisted of IO iteracy casses provided for Cham peope in Rattanakiri province 2 Lao PDR The Lao Peope s Democratic Repubic has a popuation of over 45 miion comprising 48 ethnic groups which are commony divided into three main categories: a) Lao Lum/Loun (owand Lao), constituting 60-70 per cent of the popuation, predominanty of Thai-Lao ethnicity, Buddhist and speakers of the nationa Lao anguage b) Lao Rang/Theung (midde Lao), 25 per cent of the popuation These peope ive on the mountain sopes (between 200-800 metres) They are descendants of the first inhabitants of Laos who practised sash and bum farming They are mainy animists in reigious and spiritua practice and are predominanty of Mon-Khmer ethnic@ Each group has its own anguage
c) Lao Soung (highand Lao), IO-15 per cent, who ive in the high mountain regions (over 800 metres) of centra and northern Laos They are mosty of Hmong-Yao or Tibeto-Burmese ethnic origin There are aso ethnic Haw, a sub-group of Chinese Han iving aong the Chinese border in Phongsay province Each of these ethnic groups has a variety of anguages, cutures, traditions and spiritua beiefs There is a good dea of variation in adut iteracy estimates for the Lao (45-75 per cent), and there are very imited data avaiabe for ethnic minorities Case studies from different provinces within the country show rates of iiteracy between 50 per cent and 90 per cent Nong Het province is home to peope of a three main groups of the Lao PDR A 1990 survey conducted in Nong Het showed that 29 per cent of Lao Lum, 5 1 per cent of Lao Theung and 6 1 per cent of Lao Soung were not iterate The 5th Congress of the Centra Party Committee outined state poicy for the ethnic minority groups of Laos Its goa incuded the practice of equa rights, enhancement of physica and menta iving conditions and increased soidarity/integration as a nation state Training courses for vounteer teachers have been undertaken, but the impementation of the nationa action pan has been sowed by the ack of funding 3 Viet Nam The Sociaist Repubic of Viet Nam has a popuation of around 77 miion peope Ethnic Kinh constitute 87 per cent of the popuation There are around 53 ethnic minorities in Viet Nam, the arger groups being Muong, Loo, Dao, Kontum, Tay, Nung, H mong, Cham and Khmer Most of the ethnic groups ive in reativey remote midand and mountain provinces, making a iving from farming and forestry Each has its own anguage, some have different writing systems whie some anguages have no written form A 1989 survey showed that 164 per cent of the popuation were deemed iiterate Over 40 per cent were members of ethnic minorities Due to economic hardship, universa primary education has not yet been achieved throughout Viet Nam The deveopment of iteracy programmes has been under way in Viet Nam for many years, supported by government poicies such as Eradication of Iiteracy (EOI) and Compementary Education in Viet Nam 4 Myanmar In 1994, the popuation of the Union of Myanmar was estimated at 44 miion The popuation is composed of 135 ethnic groups The argest ethnic group is the Bama, who comprise 69 per cent of the popuation Other groups incude the Karen, Shan, Kayin, Rakhine, Mon, Chin, Kachin and Kayah The nationa iteracy rate in 1983 was approximatey 78 per cent (571 per cent for women and 846 per cent for men) It is feared that with the termination of the nationa iteracy programme in 1988, non-enroment and drop-out at the primary eve, that the actua functiona iteracy rate may have decined
Throughout the 1990s greater attention has been given to deveoping remote and border areas within Myanmar Graduates from the University for Deveopment of Nationa Races are trained as teachers/community eaders Ethnic anguages are studied and taught at this university In addition, the Government has estabished the Ministry for Progress of Border Areas and Nationa Races and Deveopment Affairs Co-ordinating committees under this ministry and participating NGOs have begun to reach out through informa education networks being impemented in viages and remote regions 5 Thaiand Thaiand has a popuation of around 60 miion peope Around 80 per cent of the popuation is ethnic Thai, the remaining popuation consisting of hitribe ethnic groups, ethnic Chinese, Maayspeaking Musims and ethnic Vietnamese Thaiand s hitribe ethnic groups number approximatey 500,000 peope They ive predominanty aong the western boundary of Thaiand and in the mountainous regions of northern Thaiand The six argest tribes in this region are: the Karen, constituting 49 per cent of ai hitribe peope the Hmong (Meo), 15 per cent the Yao (Mien), 65 per cent (whose written anguage uses Chinese characters) the Akha, 6 per cent the Lisu, 455 per cent the Lahu Each of the hitribe ethnic groups has its own anguage, beiefs, traditions, cutura practices and dress These groups predominanty practice basic farming The nationa average for iteracy in Thaiand is 97 per cent, but for hitribe minorities the iteracy average stands at ony 15 per cent The provision of basic education for ethnic minorities has been enunciated as a top priority in Thaiand s Nationa Economic and Socia Deveopment Pan A number of programmes have been impemented by the Ministry of Education, incuding a community-based and ocay determined curricuum for aduts and chidren, as we as a basic skis curricuum that incorporates Thai anguage instruction, mathematics and ife and socia skis 6 Phiippines Roughy 20 per cent of the nation s popuation of 64 miion are members of indigenous triba communities There are many different triba communities, some of the arger ones being the Ibaoi, Kankanai, Itneg, Bontoc, Bungkaot, Kainga, Apayao, Higaonon, Manobo, Mamanwa, Dumagat, Tibai, Tiruray, Bagobo, Bukidnon, Mansaka, Sangi, Mandaya, Tasaday, and Matigsaog Recent surveys have shown that in the Phiippines there are cose to 3 miion peope considered iiterates and over 115 miion Fiipinos who are ony partiay functionay iterate Indigenous triba communities make up the majority of these
In response to this situation, the Department of Education, Cuture and Sports deveoped the Non- Forma Education Project with assistance from the Asian Deveopment Bank This is but one government project that has been impemented as part of an overa poicy towards the eradication of iiteracy by the Year 2000 7 Maaysia Maaysia s popuation stands cose to 20 miion Indigenous communities of Maaysia found on the Maay Peninsua (Negritos and Sengoi) make up 4 per cent of the popuation Indigenous peopes constitute 50 per cent of the popuation in the Eastern Maaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak on the isand of Borneo These communities incude the Dayak, Iban, Kayan, Keabit, Kenyah and Penan The states of Sabah and Sarawak have an iiteracy rate much higher than the mainand states The Annua Statistica Buetin of Sarawak reports that 42 per cent of the popuation are iiterate, 3 per cent are semi-iterate and 55 per cent are iterate There are more peope who are not iterate in rura than in urban areas, more iiterate women than men, and iiteracy is more prevaent among minority ethnic groups than among the ethnic majority The states of Sabah and Sarawak have impemented Functiona Literacy Programmes under the Ministry of Rura Deveopment for youth and aduts from the age of 15 years and over, particuary in rura areas It is anticipated that non-iterate peope wi become semi to whoy functionay iterate through the impementation and deveopment of these programmes 8 Mongoia Nomadic and semi-nomadic pastora activities remain centra to the way of ife of Mongoia s indigenous community of 16 miion out of a tota popuation of 26 miion peope There are no statistics provided on iteracy/iiteracy rates for Mongoia, given the dispersed nature of the popuation and the as yet underdeveoped systems of transport and communication However, one in four Mongoian chidren is not abe to attend schoo In response to these trends, the Ministry of Sciences and Education has introduced systems of continuing education, with a component part being the impementation of non-forma education programme initiatives to combat iiteracy and provide basic education 9 China There are 55 ethnic minorities in the Peope s Repubic of China, constituting 8 per cent of the country s tota popuation Of these minorities, the arger ones are the Hui (76 miion), Manchu (9 miion), Miao (76 miion), Mongoian (52 miion), Tibetan (47 miion), Uygur (66 miion), Yi (66 miion) and the Zhuang (16 miion) Of these 55 ethnic minorities, 53 have their own spoken anguage and 23 have their own writing system Some 30 per cent of these popuations are not iterate or are semi-iterate Literacy skis are encouraged in both the officia Chinese orthography and in the oca anguage/script It is a constitutiona right that each minority anguage wi be the teaching
anguage for its popuation Athough great advances have been made in recent years in achieving enhanced iteracy skis among indigenous and ethnic minority popuations, given the vast numbers of peope and distances to be covered, there is sti a great dea more to be done 10 Indonesia Indonesia is one of the most popuous countries in the word with a tota popuation of over 200 miion Approximatey 300 of Indonesia s ethnic groups speak over 240 different anguages Some of the minority and indigenous peopes incude the peopes of East Timor, Bai, and Kaimantan (Borneo), as we as the triba communities of West Papua (Asmat, Amungme, Chimbo, Dani, Kapuku and Mae-Enga) There are no avaiabe statistics on the eves of iteracy for indigenous and minority communities, but the Government is engaged in efforts to suppy iteracy education in severa of the minority anguages However, the buk of the iteracy teaching is in the nationa anguage of Bahasa Indonesia opportunities amon ethnic minorities in the region? Does this information reject what is happening or has happened in your PART 2 GENERAL FEATURES, CHALLENGES AND DIFFICULTIES The importance of deveoping iteracy instruction for indigenous peopes and ethnic minorities is recognized, but throughout the countries surveyed above, there remain a number of barriers to effective instruction for, and participation of, minority groups Drawing from your knowedge, discuss in sma groups what are the barriers to iteracy/basic education that ethnic minorities and training We have isted beow seven common areas in which indigenous peopes/ethnic minorities usuay experience difficuties: 1 Economic Hardship The majority of the ethnic minorities within the region make their iving through subsistence farming Traditiona sash and bum farming methods require arge tracts of and that are increasingy not avaiabe Consequenty, much of peope s time and energy is taken up in keeping the famiy fed In some situations, poverty is a recurring condition of ife
2 Remote Locations Ethnic minority communities have maintained their cutura, inguistic and traditiona differences through their remoteness from the majority ethnic communities The ethnic minorities of arge parts of Asia predominanty ive in mountainous and remote regions reativey cose to the nationa borders as they exist today 3 Lack of Infrastructura Support Given remoteness and the arge number of sites where ethnic minorities ive, there has not been the funding to support the deveopment and/or refurbishment of schoo buidings, transport and administrative infrastructure that educationa programmes may require 4 Shortage of Trained Personne There have been few opportunities for education and consequenty there are few trained personne who are fuent in the anguages of the ethnic minorities 5 Resources Given that there have been few programmes that have catered for the specific iteracy needs of ethnic minorities, there are few materias that are cuturay reevant or readiy adaptabe for use in terms of their anguage or content Resources need to be appropriate for the targeted group in a cuturay sensitive way, and different resources are needed for chidren and aduts The earning content and methodoogy must be reevant to the unique ifestye and needs of the minority group 6 Perceptions about Literacy/Basic Education Instruction If the targeted earners do not have a perception that the educationa opportunities made avaiabe to them wi benefit them directy, they may not be prepared to participate, particuary in the ight of other pressing demands on them, eg, chid care, chores or farming 7 Teaching Methods Forma instruction by training personne may not be a reevant or cuturay appropriate means of deivery for iteracy programmes Learners who are not famiiar with aspects of cassroom behaviour may be confused as to their roe as earner Participants wi have expectations of how they wi receive instruction, based on the methods that were used when they attended forma schoos In the ight of your previous discussion during this task and using the above ist as a reference, discuss what has or is being done to overcome barriers to iteracy and basic education To what extent are these approaches successfu? Which of these barriers woud you target as being of the greatest priority? Why?
PART 3 THE CHALLENGES FOR A LEARNING AND POSSIBILITIES SOCIETY There are a number of factors that wi directy infuence the success of a community based functiona iteracy programme Using the ist of infuentia factors beow, discuss in sma groups which of these factors you see as crucia to the success of a iteracy programme? What coud be the consequence of not encouraging participation from the community? Why? n Infuentia Factors in the Success of a Community-based Functiona Literacy Programme 1 Recognition of Need It is vita that the community itsef recognizes the need for such a programme and has a sense of the potentia benefits such a programme coud bring to the community as a whoe, as we as to its individua members It is important that the community has either instigated contact with trainers, or wecomed the approaches as training personne move into the area 2 Loca Participation and Community Input The keys to programme success are the degree of oca participation/commitment and oca responsibiity Respected or eder members of the host community may best ead such a programme Training designated community members to undertake the training roe may be one of the programme s short to mid-term goas In a facets of the programme, the taents, skis and abiities of the community shoud be used The community needs to invest strongy in the programme and deveop a sense of ownership over the programme so that its ong-term future is more readiy assured 3 Programme Content When determining what wi form the basis of the iteracy programme, we need to recognize that the programme content must be directy reevant to the earners needs and their ives Programme content must be buit on a foundation of the understandings earners have about their word, and their pace in it It is particuary usefu for newy introduced programme content to be recyced in different ways to give earners repeated and varied opportunities to exercise their understandings of new materias and aso have opportunities to transfer known knowedge to new situations This is especiay important if the iteracy teaching is in an unfamiiar anguage
4 Programme Methodoogy It is essentia that earning styes and teaching styes within the training and iteracy programmes be compatibe When training community members to teach their neighbours to become iterate, trainers wi need to be mindfu that indigenous triba communities have successfuy and effectivey transferred compex knowedge from generation to generation over thousands of years This knowedge transfer has been repeatedy enacted without the aid of forma educationa instruction, ie, cassroom-based teaching Trainers need to work with community eders to make these means of instruction expicit so that they can faciitate the deivery of a functiona iteracy programme that buids on community traditions and vaues
Chapter Three THE APPEAL TRAINING MATERIALS FOR LITERACY PERSONNEL (ATLP) I Objective: To become famiiar with the APPEAL Training Materias for Literacy Personne (ATLP) by UNESCO n Introduction The Director-Genera of UNESCO aunched the Asia-Pacific Programme of Education for ALL (APPEAL) in 1987 APPEAL has three main aims: to eradicate iiteracy, to universaize primary education and to provide continuing education This important programme was estabished in response to the wishes of the Member States of UNESCO in the region To hep eradicate iiteracy, tweve voumes of APPEAL Training Materias for Literacy Personne (ATLP) were prepared for three different groups of users: administrators (eve A), supervisors (eve B) and instructors (eve C) These materias are drawn from the rich experience of speciaists from the Asia-Pacific region 4 b) Read the introduction to the materias provided in the foowing pages, and in sma groups identt3 and discuss each section of the introduction (ie: The Need for Literacy Training Materias, Identification of Literacy Training Leves, etc) that is reevant to your oca needs Optiona: Divide the cass into pairs Each pair presents a summary and refection on one of the 12 voumes which you woud distribute earier Choose to read voumes of direct reevance to you either as genera background knowedge or for direct appication The foowing section is the introduction to the APPEAL Training Materias for Literacy Personne (ATLP) as it appears in the tweve voumes It is divided into six parts: I The Need for Literacy Training Materias 2 Identification of Literacy Training Leves 3 Institutiona Structure and Materias for Literacy Training 4 Literacy Training Curricuum 5 The Materias as Exempars 6 The Aims of the Scheme
20 * ~LJf~ctiona~D'teracy~rZn~~e?ousPeo~~es PART 1 THE NEED FOR LITERACY TRAINING MATERIALS m Probems which are Usuay Associated with Literacy Programmes in Asia and the Pacific: a) Severe iiteracy probems persist among rura communities, urban sum dweers, the physicay disabed and eary schoo eavers b) The present training tends to be ad hoc, acking systematic overa panning c) Trainers do not aways have the most suitabe training materias for specific groups d) There is inadequate deveopment of programmes to train teachers and trainers e) Institutiona infrastructures for training are weak in most of the countries n Major Strengths in the Region: a) Governments of a countries in the region have recognized the importance of iteracy and continuing education programmes and have given their support b) At the training eve, there are a number of we-quaified and dedicated instructors c) Many pubications are avaiabe for training aduts and young peope in basic iteracy skis One way in which APPEAL aims to acceerate the eradiction of iiteracy is through improved training of iteracy personne PART 2 IDENTIFICATION OF LITERACY TRAINING LEVELS There are three eves of iteracy personne who need training as shown in the tabe beow: Figure 31 APPEAL s Three Leves of Literacy Personne A Senior anagement Provincia/District Supervisors (incuding Trainers of Trainers) Instructors and Trainers (Teachers) Leve B Leve A Leve C
PART 3 INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE AND MATERIALS FOR LITERACY TRAINING The voumes in this series of APPEAL Training Materias for Literacy Personne (ATLP) are interreated, hence it may be usefu to read Voume One and Voume Two before going on to any other voume in the series Tabe 31 Tite and Scope of the 12 ATLP Voumes Manua for Supervisors - Resource Deveopment and Training PART 4 LITERACY TRAINING CURRICULUM The deveopment of training manuas for iteracy personne coud not proceed without a westructured, fexibe curricuum framework designed to meet the needs of different cientee groups In designing the exempar iteracy training curricuum, the foowing criteria may be considered: 1 Functiona content showing ogica deveopment from concept to concept; 2 Progressivey buit iteracy skis; 3 A concentricay panned curricuum, enabing earners to repeatedy re-examine the main areas of functiona content at deeper eves of understanding using steadiy improving iteracy skis; and 4 Literacy skis sequenced in eves of progression defined in terms of specified outcomes
PART 5 THE MATERIALS AS EXEMPLARS The materias described in the series are exempars An exempar is a resource materia, which iustrates a set of principes and procedures and which can be used and adapted in the deveopment of reevant materias meeting oca training needs by individua countries It woud be impracticabe to deveop exempar iteracy training esson materias for a countries of the region The approach, therefore, has been to: 1 Deveop a curricuum 2 Identify four areas of functiona needs that appear to represent common areas of concern among the countries of Asia and the Pacific 3 Produce exempar esson materias for these four areas 4 Provide guideines to faciitate the deveopment of effective nationa iteracy training programmes It is intended that the four exempar training materias (ATLP Vos 5-8) be used as exampes of how such materias may be designed and produced Each country may write or adapt the training manuas for its own use To hep this process, specifications have been provided for a range of additiona functiona iteracy topics In addition, support materia has been provided to aid in the design and impementation of a tota nationa programme The important feature of the exempar esson materias is that they buid in step-by-step guideines and instructions for teachers (eve C personne) This has been done on the assumption that it woud not be practicabe to provide comprehensive training for the many thousands or hundreds of thousands of iteracy presenters empoyed in most countries either as government empoyees or vounteers Each exempar manua may be produced in two editions, one for the iteracy earner and one for the iteracy faciitator The main aim of the tweve-voume set is to faciitate the deveopment of a totay integrated and coherent iteracy training system within a given country At the same time, the materias may hep in estabishing some usefu, internationay acceptabe parameters for such programmes Figure 32 suggests how a nationa iteracy curricuum may be impemented through the deveopment of resources for the three eves of iteracy training personne It aso suggests the importance of estabishing strong inks between nationa programmes and the regiona iteracy network estabished under APPEAL The importance of deveoping such a scheme in reation to continuing education and to the universa primary education movement is aso indicated
Figure 32 Overview of the ATLP Scheme The reationships between the essentia eements of the scheme are iustrated beow APPEAL - INTERNATIONAL LITERACY -NETWORK YTINUING EOI EDI JCATION LEVEL A b - MANAGEMENT MANUAL - I LUI L UPE Key : EOI = Eradication of Iiteracy UPE = Universa Primary Education PART 6 THE AIMS OF THE SCHEME By appying a set of common principes of management and design that is usefu to a countries, the scheme provides: 1 Guideines for countries wishing to design a tota iteracy programme that brings a eements and a eves together in a systematic way without imposing a particuar structure 2 Guideines for the deveopment of a systematic curricuum that coud meet the needs of individua countries 3 A set of principes that may be usefu in deveoping a systematic programme for the training of iteracy personne
4 An approach to instructiona design that appies the principes of gender equity to the organization of suitabe resources for teachers and earners 5 Guideines for increasing the effectiveness of the iteracy training materias aready in use in the countries of the region 6 Suggestions for a system that may hep iteracy teachers present effective essons through the encouragement of maximum participation by the earners 7 An introduction to a system of design that coud faciitate assessment and evauation of a nationa iteracy programme 8 Hep in deveoping usefu, internationay understandabe parameters for the impementation of iteracy training programmes What have you earnt from the 12 voumes of the APPEAL Training Materias for Literacy Personne (ATLP) which was of direct reevance to you? What aspects and/or particuar voumes woud you recommend to new training personne in your area?