8 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURES, CONCEPTS, AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK A literary review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. Literature reviews in this research were divided into two types, they were thesis review. In this chapter, all of the theories and concepts that relevant to be analysis of the data were clearly described. They were inserted in the subchapters, entitled review of literature, concepts and theoretical framework. The first subchapter, some studies on utterances that already done by previous students of the English Department which give contribute for this study are briefly discussed. The second subchapters is a theory based on understanding emerging within the concepts of speech acts, and illocutionary acts such as assertive, directives, commissives, expressive, declarations. The third subchapter covers all of the theories that used in analyzing data. It refers to any theories proposed by linguists as the basic sources to tackle with the analysis of the as assertive, directives, commissives, expressive, declarations illocutionary acts and also the context of situation that supports the type of illocutionary acts. They were framed in a systematic explanation, known as theoretical framework.
9 2.1 Review of Literature This subchapter discusses the review of the undergraduate thesis. The explanation is described clearly about the explanation of previous studies related to the topic in this study. Those have been done by the students of English Department as their undergraduate thesis. Nurani (2006) in her thesis entitled Speech Act Component in the Movie The Proposal the scope of discussion the topic is wide enough, her study described speech act component such as locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary. Besides, her study mentions the context situation in the movie. Her study applies qualitative method. The similarities between her study and this study could be seen from: the object to be discussed which was from movie. Actually, here the data was taken from a movie Madagascar 3: Europe s Most Wanted. After finding the similarities, there were also differences among our studies. The difference her study with this study is her study analyzes speech act components, the topic is wide enough to analyze. Therefore, the data in this study were presented in the form directive sentence. The writer didn t explain about the context of situation that supports the illocutionary utterances. Her study used the differences theory to support the analysis of the problem about the context of situation of illocutionary acts was the theory Ethnography of Communication proposed by Hymes (1972), whereas this study used the theory of context situation by Halliday and Hassan. Her study also has the weakness; the weakness of her study is in the explanation of context situation, Nurani didn t explain about the context of situation that supports the illocutionary utterance.
10 The result is her study showed many examples of speech act component and context of situation influence the speaker s utterance and the action made by the hearer. A relevant study is conducted by Ayu Dewijayanti (2010) entitled Direct and Indirect Illocutionary Act used in The Duchess Movie. The writer explained about two kinds of illocutionary acts. It is about the use of direct and indirect illocutionary acts in The Duchess movie. Her study applies qualitative method. In order to achieve the aims of the study, there are some theories such as the theory of Searle is applied to identify the utterance or expression used by the characters in the movie, then categorizing whether it is indirect or direct illocutionary act. The similarities between her study and this study conducted by Ayu Dewijayanti can be seen from the object, it is same used the object was taken from movie. However, there are also some differences including the use of the combination of the theory in analyzing the source and the source itself. The difference is also seen from the focus of the study. While the study conducted by Ayu Dewijayanti focused only on the direct and indirect illocutionary acts and this study focuses on type of illocutionary acts. Jayanti s thesis uses the theory proposed by Malinowski to analyze the problems about influence the context of situation to the response of the hearer, but this study used the theory according to Halliday to analyze about the context of situation which influence the language used. The weakness of her study is not exploring the types of illocutionary acts since it is important in order to understand the topic and her study only analyzed the hearer s responses and then matched them based on the theory of context situation. It will be better when she also matched direct and indirect illocutionary acts
11 which are spoken by the characters in her data source based on the theory of context situation, not only the hearer response. Her study gives some contribution to this study, such as in the area of theory and also a view about how to make analysis of this study. A relevant thesis discussing about illocutionary act entitled Illocutionary Acts in Sense and Sensibility Movie Screenplay by Arya Waharika (2010) analyzed about the type of illocutionary acts found in movie screenplay as well found, analyzed the function and explication meaning as well his found. Like the others two undergraduate thesis been reviewed, Arya Waharika also used the theory of context situation to support the type of illocutionary acts proposed by Hymes (1972) and his study applies qualitative method. The relevance of his study could be seen from the similarities and the differences between this study and his study. The similarity was had the same topic with her study is about illocutionary acts. The differences of both of the studies was his study focuses on the function and the explication meaning of illocutionary acts in Sense and Sensibility, whereas this study is focuses on the type of illocutionary acts and the context of situation that support the illocutionary utterance. The other differences, his study was taken from screenplay movie, although the object this study was taken from animated comedy film. Generally, his study could be considered as good enough in terms of the overall result of his research and analysis as well. But on the other hand, the weakness was also found in his study, Arya Waharika did the analysis which the other studies actually use, for instance analysis the function and the meaning of the type of illocutionary acts. The
12 result is his study showed among four functions of illocutionary acts that are found in the movie, several function of each type of the illocutionary acts were found, and the explication of the meaning of illocutionary acts is done by using semantic primitives. Arya Waharika makes good analysis and data preventatives. It was very clear. Because it is easily can be understood even to a new learner of speech act for it contain a good classification with clear explanation, which are the type of illocutionary acts. In comparing those three undergraduate thesis with this study, it could be concluded that all of these thesis were related one to another since the topic was about illocutionary acts, but the differences could be seen from the problem of this study which were about the intended meaning of each type of illocutionary acts and what is the context of situation that support type of illocutionary acts, whereas those three thesis explained about the kinds of illocutionary acts and its function. Bach and Harnish s theory also Hymes theory were used in those three undergraduate thesis, whereas John Searle s theory and Halliday s theory were used in analyzing this study. However, it was clear that this study had something more than those three studies. Speech act especially illocutionary acts as a part of it is such an interesting topic to be discussed. It is showed by several scholars from all over the world who had done some research about this topic. One of them is the international journal s article related to this study entitled Facebook Status Updates: A Speech Act Analysis by Sanna Illyas and Damar Kushi (2012). This article was taken from Academic Research International, 3 rd volume, No. 2.This article use the theory
13 from Searle in the field of Speech Act. She criticizes about facebook status updates, their study aimed at exploring the communicative functions of status updates on Facebook. Moreover, how identities were established and represented through language was also examined. For this purpose the status updates were analyzed through Searle s Speech Act framework. Their study is applies quantitative method with a total of 171 status updates were collected for 5 consecutive days and then the data were categorized according to the devised coding. The result is their study showed that various socialization patterns emerge through the sharing of feelings, information and ideas. International journal s article entitled Offering as a Comissive and Directive Speech Act: Consequence for Cross-Cultural Communication by Ad-Darraji, Foo, Ismail, and Abdullah (2012), this article was taken from International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 3, all of the writers are the researchers from the School of Languages, Literacies and Translations, Universiti Sains Malaysia and English Department at Tikrit University. This study is to investigates the art of offer from different perspectives by examining the speech Act theory perform on offer as one of the speech acts which can be subsumed under two categories namely commissive and directives. It also focuses on the speech act of offering from philosophical, social, and cultural views. The study attempted to provide a detailed analysis of the speech act of offering grounded on the Theory of Speech Acts introduced by introduced by Austin s (1962) and Searle (1969) to understand the way utterances are and should be understood in pragmatic context.
14 The result is his study recommends that speech acts in general and the act of offer in particular should be validated in cross-cultural contexts. 2.2 Concepts Concept consists of some certain theories that related to support that making of research paper. There were two concepts that having relevancy to the topic of this data study, such as the concept of speech act, and the concept of illocutionary acts as a part of speech act. 2.2.1 Speech Act Speech act field of study was firstly introduced by Austin who well known as an Oxford Philosopher but then J.R. Searle took it further. Not only them, there were also some other linguists who took a part in explaining thus study. Austin (1962) conveys that Speech act is the act of making an utterance in which the speaker is performing a certain kind of acts, such as; giving advice, asking question, making promises, making offers, etc. Those kinds of acts are known as speech acts. John L. Austin is the first linguist proposed three types of act that are simultaneously performed by a speaker, those are: a. Locutionary Act The utterance of a sentence with determined sense and reference, e.g.: S says to H that P. It means that S produces an utterances; an utterance of certain words
15 in certain construction, and with certain sense and reference. Therefore it could be concluded that the components of illocutionary act were including phonetic (phonology), phatic (syntactic) and rhetic (meaningful). b. Illocutionary Act The utterance which had certain or convention force (performing act in saying something, e.g. in saying X, S asserts that P (Preposition)). Illocutionary act could also define as what speaker S does in uttering U to hearer H in context C. The speaker might perform an act or making a statement or promise, issuing a command or request, asking a question, etc. c. Perlocutionary Act What S brings about or archives by saying something (performing an act by saying something. By saying X, S convinces H that P). For example getting someone to believe that something, moving someone to anger, consoling someone in his distress, etc. In other words, when S causes an effect on H by means of uttering U, it could be said that S has performed a perlocutionary act. There was a series of analytical connection appeared in the notion of speech act itself, such as what the speaker means, what the sentences (or other linguistic element) uttered means, what the speaker intends, what the hearer understands, and what the rules governing the linguistic elements are. According Searle s theory speech act is a minimal functional unit in human communication. According to Austin and Searle, when a speaker says something, he does something at the same time. Several scholars claim that we perform speech acts
16 when we offer an apology, greeting, request, complaint, invitation, compliment, or refusal. A speech act might contain just one word or several words or sentences. Speech acts include real life interactions and are requiringnot only knowledge of the language but also appropriate use of that language within a given culture. In other words it means that the hearer was expected to recognize what the speaker communicative intention and the circumstances surrounding the utterance were usually help both the speaker and the hearer in the process to understand each other. 2.2.2 Illocutionary Acts as a Part of Speech Acts Austin (1962) defines that a speech act consists of (i) locutionary act, (ii) illocutionary act and (iii) perlocutionary act. Of the above mentioned acts, speech act theory tended to concentrate largely on illocutionary acts. As has been defined before, Yule also defined illocutionary acts were an utterance with some kind of function in mind. It is performed via the communicative force of an utterance. Searle (1981) stated that Illocutionary acts occur in which the speaker utters a sentence, means what he says, but also means something more. For example the speaker may utter a sentence I want you to close it by way of requesting the hearer to do something. However that was a request made by way of making a statement.
17 Illocutionary act, defined by Austin as the act performed in saying something, brings about a happening that can only be carried out by words. In other words, it represented his point of view about what one does in saying something. When we introduced context theories to the field of discourse analysis, we must take into consideration not only the discourse itself, but also the context in which the discourse takes place. According to Searle, many utterance are equivalent to actions. As a speaker produces an utterance, she or he is alsoperforming a certain kind of acts such as giving order, asking question, making request, making a promise, etc. He further clarified the work begun by Austin and redefined Austin s illocution, or illocutionary acts. He proposed speech act categories including the following: a. Assertives Statements that convey a belief or disbelief in some proposition, such as an assertion. b. Directives Attempts to influence the listeners to something, such as a demand or command. c. Commissives Commitments of self to some future course of action, such as vow, promise, or swear. d. Expressives Expressions of a psychological state, such as thank, apologize, or deplore. e. Declaratives Statements of fact that presume to alter a state of affairs, such as I confer upon you.
18 2.2.3 Directive Illocutionary Act According to Searle (1979:13), the illocutionary point of these consists in the fact they are attempts (of varying degrees, and hence, more precisely, they are determinates of the determinable which includes attempting) by the speaker to get the hearer to do something 2.2.4 Context of Situation Halliday (1985) stated that all use of language has a context situation. An utterance which was uttered in a different context of situation could be interpreted differently. He also state A context of situation consists of three elements namely field of discourse, tenor of discourse, and mode of discourse. Field of discourse refers to the ongoing activity. We may say field is the linguistic reflection of the purposive role of language user in the situation in which a text has occurred. Tenor refers to the kinds of social relationship enacted in or by the discourse. The notion of tenor, therefore, highlights the way in which linguistic choices are affected not just by the topic or subject of communication but also by the kind of social relationship within, which communication is taking place. Mode is the linguistic reflection of the relationship the language user has to medium of transmission. The principal distinction within mode is between those channels of communication that entail immediate contact and those that allow for deferred contact between participants. In other words, field refers to what is happening to the nature of the social action is taking place, tenor involves the participants and
19 other aspects related to them such as statues, roles, occupation, and etc. Meanwhile, mode is associated with how the conversation happens. 2.2.5 Dialogue Based on the theory of communication from Wilbur Schramm, Communication is something people do. There is no meaning in a message except what people put into it. To understand human communication process, one must understand how people relate to each other. Added to the model the context of the relationship, and how that relationship will affect. Included the social environment in the model, noting that it will influence the frame of reference of participants. To change a situation or environment or constructively deal with any issue, there first needs to be dialogue. Dialogue is a communication tool that allows people to understand other viewpoints without pitting themselves against different perspectives. In dialogue, there is no defending of opinions, and no counterpoints. When individuals or groups have different perspectives and see issues differently, dialogue can be employed as an effective communication tool to help the parties understand each other's point of view. Dialogue brings people together who would not naturally sit down together and talk about important issues. It is a process to successfully relate to people who are different from you. Their differences can include gender, religion, work departments, cultures, ethnicity, race, sexual orientation, or age.
20 2.3 Theoretical Framework In theoretical framework, the selected theories that used to analyze the data of the study were presented in more detail. This subchapter was divided into two; they were the classification of illocutionary acts and the theory of context situation. The main theory providing the classification of illocutionary acts was based on The Taxonomy of Elementary Illocutionary Acts by J.R. Searle. Meanwhile, Halliday s theory of context of situation (1989) was used to cope with the analysis of this study. The theory of speech act would interact with the theory of context of situation since illocutionary acts was a part of speech acts. When the speaker uttered something to the hearer, the utterance would be decided whether it belonged to one of the kinds of the kinds of illocutionary acts based on Searle s theory of illocutionary acts. If the utterance belonged to the illocutionary acts, there must be an intended meaning that the speaker wanted the hearer to understand. To find what exactly intended meaning was, the theory of context of situation was needed, because it was impossible to guess the intended meaning without looking at the context or situation or condition. However, it was clear that illocutionary as a part of speech acts could not be separated from the context of situation and all of them were related one another. 2.3.1 Illocutionary Acts The main theory which was use to analyze the data in this study was speech act theory proposed by John R. Searle, especially the categorization of illocutionary acts and its meaning. According to Searle s Taxonomy in
21 Elementary Illocutionary Acts, there were only five illocutionary points that speaker could attempt to achieve in expressing a propositional content with an illocutionary force, these were: assertive/representatives, commsives, directives, declarative and expressive illocutionary point. Each illocutionary act with a force has an illocutionary point which is internal to its being an act with that force. That illocutionary point determines a particular direction of fit between words and things. In attempting to perform an illocutionary act of the form F (P) speakers relate the propositional content P to the world with the intention of achieving a success of fit (or correspondence) between words and things. The illocutionary act is satisfied when his success of fit is achieved from the appropriate direction of fit. This study is also support by the theory of Austin (1970) and theory of Halliday (1989). Searle (1979) proposes the Taxonomy of Illocutionary Acts. The classifications are: 1. Assertive The point or purposes of the members of the assertive class is to commit the speaker (in varying degrees) to something s being the case, to the truth of the expressed preposition. All of the member s assertive classes are assessable on the dimension of assessment which includes true or false. It can be recognized that the existence of assertive as a quite separate class, based on the notion of illocutionary point, then the existence of a large number of a performative verbs that denote illocutionary that seem to be assessable in the True-False dimension.
22 The examples of the verbs in this class are state, boast, complain, conclude, deduce, predict. For example: 1. I state that it is raining. 2. I predict he will come. 2. Directive The prepositional content is always that the hearer H does some future action A. Verbs denoting in these members are: ask, order, command, request, beg, pled, pray, entreat, invite, permit, and advise. For example: 1. I order you to leave. 2. I command you to stand at attention. 3. Commissive Commissive is illocutionary act which point is to commit the speaker to somefuture course of action. The point of a promise is to commit the speaker to do somethingsuch as committing, promising, refusing, wishing, predicting, threatening, vowing, volunteering etc.for example: 1. I promise to pay you the money. 2. I pledge allegiance to the flag. 4. Expressive Illocutionary point of this class is to express the psychological state specified in the sincerity condition about a state of affair specified in the prepositional context. The verbs that are used in this class are thank, congratulate, apologize, condole, deplore, and welcome. For example:
23 1. I apologize for stepping on your toe. 2. I thank you for paying me the money. 5. Declarative It is defining characteristic of this class that about the correspondence between the propositional content and reality, successful performance guarantees that the prepositional content corresponds to the world. Declaration brings about some alternation in the status or condition of the referred to object or object solely in virtue of the fact that the declaration has been successfully performed. For example: 1. I declare the meeting adjourned. 2. I find you guilty as change. 2.3.2 Theory of Context of Situation In language, pragmatics and discourse are closely connected. Both pragmatics and discourse involve concepts far deeper than mere word definitions and sentence structure. Unlike grammar, which involves the rules governing proper language structure, pragmatics and discourse focus on the meaningfulness of spoken or written language. Pragmatics and discourse go hand in hand with context. Pragmatics handles language use in context. It is mainly engaged with the analysis of use of sentences. Discourse analysis focuses on one more paragraph, one article. However, discourse analysis can be done using a pragmatic framework, such as speech act theory. They are related fields, in
24 discourse analysis there are lots of elements that can be classified as pragmatic features. Grundy (2000) states that in the case of implicature, context helps us to determine what is conveyed implicitly but not explicitly stated by the speaker. It means that the meaning of utterance depends on the context, which carries it. In addition context makes us to attend senders and receiver needs, goals, and wants are personalized not just to the conventional meanings of prior text but also to particular socially and culturally defined communicative situations (Brown and Yule, 1983). In advance, we can say that context is all of the situations from out the utterance which influences the language users and the situation where the language is produced. Meanwhile, for inferring the context of situation, Brown and Yule (1983:37) introduces the notion of a context of situation as follows: The context of situation is best used to examine a wide range of human behavior in a variety of settings through the perspectives of many disciplines. According to Halliday (1989), there are three features of context situation that will be used in supporting the analysis of the problem about the function of illocutionary act. Halliday developed an analysis of context in terms of field, tenor and mode.
25 a. The Field of Discourse refers to what is happening, to the nature of the social action that is taking place, what is it that the participants are engaged in, in which the language figures as some essential component. b. The Tenor of Discourse refers to who taking part, to the nature of the participants, their statues and roles; what kinds of role relationship obtain among the participants, including permanent and temporary relationship of one kind or another, both the types of speech role that they are taking on in the dialogue and the whole cluster of socially significant relationship in which they are involved. c. The Mode of Discourse refers to what part the language is playing, what it is that the participants are expecting the language to do for them in that situation; the symbolic organization of the text, the status that it has, and its function in the context including the channel (is it spoken or written or some combination of the two) and also the rhetorical mode, what is being achieved by the text in terms of such categories as persuasive, expository, didactic and the like. Overall, it could be concluded that a certain of context situation underlying a sentence or an utterance in order to the hearer could get the intended meaning or the message of the utterance. In other words, the context of situation could help the hearer to grasp and understand the intended meaning which was spoken by the speaker.