FACTORS THAT CAUSE STUDENTS TO LEAVE BEFORE GRADUATION

DROPPED OUT: FACTORS THAT CAUSE STUDENTS TO LEAVE BEFORE GRADUATION A Dissertation Presented to The Faculty of the Education Department Carson-Newman University In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Education By Andrea K. P. Moore March 2017 1

Abstract In the United States of America where every person has the right to a free education from grades Kindergarten through 12 th grade, one in three students does not graduate. In fact, more than 7,000 students drop out each school day. This national crisis has been an educational nightmare for the past few decades. This study examines the factors that cause students to leave before graduation, and seeks information about preventative methods to keep students from quitting. The study consisted of 15 respondents from an adult high school in East Tennessee. The study utilized the qualitative research methodology by using a one-on-one interview guide, follow-up phone call interviews, and observations. These research questions were examined: What factors cause students to leave school before graduation? Are there any preventative measures that educators can do to keep students in school until after graduation? After the completion of the interviews, responses were transcribed and coded in order to identify emergent themes within the data. Significant outcomes of the research showed: (a) a lack of credits and falling behind was the most common reason why students quit; (b) moving, being bullied, language barriers, and a combination of the factors were also listed as recurrent reasons students dropped out; (c) respondents felt like monitoring progress, providing academic support, and creating a safe and inviting learning environment could prevent students from leaving prior to graduation. The conclusions of this study could assist educators in decreasing the dropout rate, as well as creating more supportive learning environments for everyone. This study may also assist educators in understanding what truly motivates and engages students in the classroom. Lastly, information from the study could shed light on how to better support at-risk students. 4

Acknowledgements and Dedication There were so many people who helped me along the way that it would take volumes to thank them all. However, I would like to begin by acknowledging Jesus Christ because it is only through him that we can do all things. I would like to thank my husband, Rashid for all his help, patience and support over the last few years. Without him I would not have been able to finish. I would also like to thank my co-worker Emily Weals for all the classes she covered for me during the last two years while I worked on my degree. I would like to thank Dr. Brenda Dean; she has been invaluable throughout the dissertation process. All the support and encouragement that she has shown me throughout the last year has been essential to the completion of my dissertation. Dr. Shon was wise, patient, and kind while working with me on the methodology of my study. A huge thanks to Dr. Sandy Enloe because she has been a wonderful encourager throughout the process, always providing helpful hints on how to balance the project and life simultaneously. I would like to thank my mother, father, and sister for the unconditional love and support they showed to me throughout the last few years while I was completing the doctorate program. I would also like to thank Dr. David Freeman for his diligence and patience as my reader. Lastly, I would like to acknowledge the Sevier County School System for allowing me to work and study in one of the greatest places on earth. I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my baby boy to whom I will give birth to very soon. Rashid Jamahl Moore II has been with me throughout the entire dissertation process, and he has patiently waited for me to finish this project before making his appearance into this world. 5

Table of Contents Abstract... 4 Acknowledgements and Dedication... 5 Table of Figures... 11 Chapter I... 13 Introduction... 13 Statement of Problem... 14 The Value of a High School Education... 14 The Reasons Students are Leaving... 15 Economical Link... 16 Incarceration Link... 17 Race and Gender Link... 17 Purpose of Study... 18 Research Questions... 19 Overview of Methodology... 19 Limitations of the Study... 20 Significance of the Study... 21 Definition of Terms... 22 Summary... 22 Chapter II... 24 6

Literature Review... 24 Factors That Influence Students to Drop Out... 28 Student-Related Indicators... 28 School-Related Indicators... 31 Family-Related Indicators... 34 Community-Related Indicators... 37 Maslow s Hierarchy of Needs... 41 Motivation and Engagement... 42 Motivation Theory... 42 Student Engagement... 47 Behavioral Engagement... 48 Academic Engagement... 49 Psychological Disengagement... 50 Social Engagement... 52 Successful Programs for At-Risk Students... 54 Shopping Mall School... 54 Technology Focused Alternative Schools TFAS... 58 Programs with Academic Supports... 59 Programs Using Early Warning Indicators and School Transition... 61 Community Programs... 63 7

Summary... 65 Chapter III... 67 Methodology... 67 Research Questions... 68 Research Design... 69 Research Context... 72 Demographics of School District... 72 Demographics of the adult high school... 73 Instrumentation... 74 Population... 75 Participants... 75 Data Collection... 76 Data Analysis... 77 Role of Researcher... 78 Ethical Issues... 78 Limitations... 79 Chapter IV... 81 Research Findings... 81 The Respondents... 85 What Factors Cause Students to Leave School before Graduation... 86 8

Are There Any Preventative Measures to Keep Students in School... 89 Guiding Questions Analyzed Using Emergent Themes... 91 Summary... 97 Chapter V... 99 Findings, Implications, and Recommendations... 99 Summary of the Study... 99 Research Questions... 100 Findings... 101 Findings Related to Research... 102 Student-Related Indicators... 102 School-Related Indicators... 103 Family-Related Indicators... 106 Community-Related Indicators... 107 Maslow s Hierarchy of Needs... 109 Motivational and Engagement Theory... 111 Conclusions... 113 Monitor School Progress and Identify At-Risk Students... 114 Provide Academic Support to At-Risk Students... 114 Create a Safe and Inviting Learning Environment... 115 Limitations... 116 9

Recommendation for Future Research... 116 Summary... 117 References... 119 Appendices... 125 Appendix A: Interview Guide... 126 Appendix B: Participant s Letter of Consent... 128 Appendix C: Director of School s Letter of Consent... 130 10

Table of Figures Figure 4. 1 presents overall percentages of the ages of the respondents in the study... 85 Figure 4. 2 presents the percentages of the overall ages of the respondents when they dropped out of high school... 85 Figure 4. 3 presents the overall percentage of the last grades attended by the respondents... 86 Figure 4. 4 presents the overall percentages of the grade level when the respondents fell behind... 86 Figure 4. 5 presents the overall percentages of the factors that caused students to dropout... 89 Figure 4. 6 shows the overall percentages of whether or not respondents regretted their decision to quit school... 89 Figure 4. 7 presents the overall percentages of responses given to answer what the school could have done to keep them in school... 91 Figure 4. 8 presents the percentages of the overall responses given to answer what would have prevented the dropouts from quitting school... 91 Figure 4. 9 presents the percentages of the overall responses given to answer whether there was an adult with whom they had a relationship and could discuss personal problems... 93 Figure 4. 10 presents the overall percentages of responses to answer what family members of the dropouts had also dropped out.... 95 Figure 4. 11 shows the overall percentages of the responses to answer what employment opportunities are available for dropouts.... 96 Figure 4. 12 shows the overall percentages of the respondents annual salaries.... 96 Figure 5. 1 presents the overall percentages of responses given to answer what factors cause them to leave school based on gender.... 108 11

Figure 5. 2 presents the overall percentages of responses given to answer what factors cause them to leave school based on race.... 108 12

Chapter I Introduction Albert Einstein was four before he could speak, seven before he could read, and by his teen years had dropped out of high school. Although he did not complete school, he still managed to be named the man of the twentieth century. Henry Ford, a self-made multimillionaire, created Ford Motor Company and the auto assembly line, but he did not graduate from high school. The co-founder of, Standard Oil Company, John D. Rockefeller Sr. was the first billionaire recorded in history; he too was a high school dropout (Kerry, 2002). The late anchorman for ABC news, Peter Jennings dropped out of school when he was in the tenth grade, and he even failed to attain the equivalence of a GED, but Jennings went on to be extremely prosperous financially ( Biography for Peter, 2005). All these men had a few things in common, they all were hard workers, extremely successful, and they all quit school before graduating. In the eyes of many, dropping out of school sounds ideal because those who leave do not have to attend school, and often think they can still be successful. Unfortunately, life for most dropouts does not play out as well as it did for Albert Einstein, Henry Ford, John D. Rockefeller Sr., or Peter Jennings. In reality, most people that do not complete high school end up living just below the poverty line. Although many preventative measures have been made to keep students in school, the dropout rate still lies at a high rate ( Dropout and Truancy, 2005). 13

Statement of Problem In our nation, one in three students leave before graduation, which means that more than 7,000 students decide to dropout every day. An astonishing 1.2 million students will more than likely not graduate with their perspective class (C. Swanson, 2004). Although the U.S. was once a world leader in high school completion, now America is ranked 17 th in developed nations for graduation rate. Among industrialized nations, this country is the only one where its students are less likely to graduate from high school than their parents ( Organisation for economic, 2007). Dropouts are not just affecting their own lives, but they are costing our economy as well. In fact, the Alliance for Excellent Education (2008) explained that if the dropouts in the class of 2008 had graduated, then more than 300 million dollars over their lifetime would have been added to the nation s economy. Moreover, if the graduation rate does not increase over the next years, then more than 10 million students will become dropouts and cost our nation trillions of dollars (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2008). These dropouts are costing the state and local governments billions of dollars because of unemployment benefits, public assistance, and lost revenue (Bridgeland, Dilulio, & Wulsin, 2008; Christle, Jolivette, & Nelson, 2007; National Education Association, 2006; Orfield, Losen, Wald, & Swanson, 2004; Romberger, 1983; Romberger, 1987). The Value of a High School Education Many students who drop out have personal problems that cause them to leave school, others have financial problems, and some just thought school was just a waste of time. However, the number of people who do not complete high school is significantly correlated with income levels, incarceration numbers, race, and gender (Hale, 1998). Although it seems apparent to most, an education or high school diploma is vital to living a successful life. Education is 14

important in the global marketplace. In today s society if people want to have middle to upper class incomes then most of them must have post-secondary education? The problem that keeps occurring in the United States is that students are quitting before they finish high school. Most students are leaving between their ninth and tenth grade year, thus leaving the students not well prepared for jobs or responsibilities that adults encounter everyday ( Confronting the Graduation, 2005). When students leave from high school to begin working, it is hard for them to find jobs because they have no resume and no defined skill. According to the statement in The New York Times, high school dropouts, on average, earn $9,245 less per year than high school graduates (Herbert, 2005, p. 2). A dropouts desirability in the job market, and the chance of a college degree all but vanishes when they decide to quit school (Patterson, Hale, & Stressman, 2007). It is essential for a student to finish high school in order to enter into the playing field of careers. High school graduates are at an advantage because dropouts are more likely to be unemployed, less likely to vote, and more likely to be imprisoned (Herbert, 2005, p. 2). The Reasons Students are Leaving The significant amount of dropouts from high school is an ongoing dilemma and a silent epidemic that has become a national crisis. Although preventative measures are being used, students are still dropping out. The question educators continue to ask themselves is, what is making students leave school? Although there is no single reason why students are leaving, research presents various reasons mentioned by dropouts. Many students quit school before graduation because the students thought that high school had nothing to offer them. Students felt that they could do better without the education that was being provided to them. Other students said the exact opposite, that school was too difficult, and that they could not succeed. In an 15

article about a student from Oakland High School, it stated, that the school is so poorly run that students would make good grades even if they did not do their work (Lagto, 2005, p. 1). It further explained that poor classroom management led to arguments, fights, and classroom disruptions during instruction time, which made it difficult to learn (Lagto, 2005). Poor administration and teacher leadership are both issues that can be improved and changed in order to keep students in school. However, sometimes the factors are out of the education systems control. The students who leave in order to work to help pay bills for their families, those that choose to leave to start a family, or those students that lack interest and desire to attend school can sometimes not be reached by the system ( Youth Who Drop, 2000). Although these students make the decision to leave, do they realize what they are giving up when they choose to drop out? Economical Link There are some students who break the family tradition of dropping out, but most do not and are likely to fall in the footsteps of their parents who dropped out (Gallagher, 2002). Hence, that their parents beliefs and emphasis on education has a huge role on that of the student that is at-risk for leaving. This cycle of dropouts leaves these families incapable of making enough money to provide the essentials for their families. Moreover, making dropouts more likely to come from low-income families instead of those of higher income families. In fact, the average income in 2000 for a high school dropout was $12,400. This falls drastically below the average income of a high school graduate in 2000, which was $21,000 (Christle, Jolievette, & Nelson, 2007). Even though there are many faces to the composition of a family, the family structure can impact the decision of the student wanting to leave. Having more than one parent in the home 16

allows parents to have more time to be involved in the student s education, and to provide economically for the family s needs. Many times families that fall just below the poverty level are made up of single parent homes where the parent involvement in the student s education is almost non-existent. The lack of involvement usually comes from the parent not being present due to work or other reasons, leaving the student to care for themselves as well as complete homework assignments and take care of the home. This responsibility sometimes leaves students with no option but to leave school. Incarceration Link Individuals with high school diplomas tend to have a more successful life than those students that dropout. Not only are they further qualified for jobs, but also the person is less likely to be imprisoned (Herbert, 2005). The United States is the number one leader in prison incarceration (Carroll, 2008). Those that choose to leave before graduation, and are unemployed are six to ten times more likely to be involved activities that break the law (Kranick & Hargis, 1998). A high school dropout is eight times as likely to be involved in criminal activities, end up in jail, or on probation (Jimerson, Egeland, Stoufe, & Carlson, 2000; Schoenlien, 2004). One of the main reasons these dropouts find themselves incarcerated is because they are unable to provide for their families and have to turn to criminal activities in order to do so. Moreover, these dropouts find themselves in a revolving door that keeps them going in and out of the justice system. Race and Gender Link Students that are minorities encompass the characteristics that correlate with dropping out (Davalos, Chavez, & Guardiola, 1999). Inner city schools have higher dropout rates than those in suburban areas ( Youth who drop, 2000). Even though many people think that inner city 17

schools are predominately filled with Black American students, the Hispanic population has increased tremendously in these schools, and currently represents the highest rate for dropouts followed by Black Americans then White Americans (Weis, Ferarr, & Petire, 1989). Ginsberg and Miller-Cribbs (2000) explained that students who have different languages spoken in the home other than the primary language of the school have a higher rate of dropping out before graduation. According to Carpenter and Ramirez (2007), other factors that where shared among White and Hispanic students that left before graduation were gender, family composition, and time doing homework. Additionally, men are more likely to leave school then women, and furthermore those males from a single-parent home were found to leave more frequently within both the White and Hispanic ethnicities (Carpenter & Ramirez, 2007; Weis, Ferrar, & Petrie, 1989). Purpose of Study Even though the dropout rate has slightly decreased, America still has one of the highest numbers of high school dropouts in the industrialized countries (Herbert, 2005). In fact, the United States has placed tenth in the world for the number of students that have left school ( Youth who drop, 2000). Education is important in the aspect that once you receive it, it is yours and no one can take it away. Americans have the right to a free education until the 12 th grade, so why are young adults not taking advantage of the incredible deal? Why are students dropping out? What would cause someone to give up a free education? Why can educators across America not keep their students in school? Are public schools too hard for students to be successful, or are the students too lazy and unmotivated to complete the coursework for 12 years of school? Are the students leaving because they have no parent involvement in their education 18

or decision to leave? The purpose of this study is to address some of these questions, and answer the research questions of the study. Research Questions 1. What factors cause students to leave school before graduation? 2. Are there any preventative measures that educators can do to keep students in school until after graduation? Overview of Methodology Although much research is available on the dropout crisis and prevention, the graduation rate has not increased much at all over the last few decades. Researchers have completed quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research in order to pinpoint characteristics, factors, and preventative measures for the silent epidemic of dropouts. Action research and empirical studies have been done to test for self-motivation among students and student engagement in order to get a closer look at why these young students are choosing to leave school. Most of the studies show research that analyzes themes of dropouts and factors such as; socio-economic status, family makeup, grades, test scores, completion of grade levels, attendance, discipline, and behavioral problems. Even with all the research and studies that show the advantages of those who graduate, and the struggles of those that do not finish school, students are still choosing to leave before graduation. Not only is the knowledge of why students leaving important, knowing how to prevent them from leaving is vital to not only the students success, but economically, it is essential for these students to finish high school. Preventative research and studies that predict factors of atrisk students will aid educators in keeping students in school and will help policies better meet the needs of every student. According to Green and Winters (2005), creative solutions usually 19

originate from qualitative methods or research. Creswell (2003) explained the use of qualitative studies not only give results that are more detailed and in depth than others, but they also persuade researchers to explore the underlying issues of the problem. Further, he expressed that it is important to search more than just the what factor in qualitative studies, but he stated that the why factor needs to be answered as well (2003). This study was conducted in an adult high school that provides various programs for students that left high school. The programs are for students who lack only a few credits to graduate, who are English language learners, or those students who are seeking an alternative diploma. This school was equipped to service and guide the adults who attend the school down whichever path they choose to complete. The adult high school is a safe and respectable learning environment where the teachers, administrators, and students are all striving for the same goal of obtaining the diploma. Throughout the study, the researcher interviewed a sample of students who attended the adult high school to complete a qualitative study of why the students dropped out, and to determine, what actions or interventions could have prevented them from becoming a dropout? The results were categorized within themes and subthemes in Chapter IV. Limitations of the Study The limitations of this study are as follows: 1. The sample of students that were interviewed was comprised of students who decided to return to high school. No dropout who had not returned to school was interviewed which could change the findings of the study. 20

2. The sample was composed of those students who were in attendance on the day of the interview. The same of sample students may not be a clear representative of the entire population of the students at the adult school. 3. Data obtained from the interviews are students opinions, perspectives, and beliefs, and they are subjective. 4. The students interviewed were comprised of a small number of participants from a rural area in east Tennessee. This caused a limitation in the diversity of gender and race among those being interviewed. The lack of diversity does not show a broad scope of factors of why the students left before graduations due to the lack of diversity. Significance of the Study The research of this study is important to educators at the local, state, and national levels because they are seeking to increase graduation rates among our systems across the nation. The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) determines each high school s Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) by the graduation rate of the school. In order for these high schools to close gaps and show improvement in the AYP status, schools must find ways to keep students in school and on track to graduate. The input from students that left and completed a program through the adult high school could give administrators the information they need to prevent at-risk students from becoming unengaged, uninterested, or ultimately dropping out. If all educational stakeholders could communicate and organize preventative programs for at-risk students, then the graduation rate could increase while economic deficiencies and incarceration numbers decrease. 21

Definition of Terms Adult school: are schools that designed for those over the age of 16 who did not complete high school. Adult schools have programs that provide classes for test preparation, career training, language skills, and continuing education ( What is An Adult, 2016). Alternative diploma: are diplomas that require less vigorous course of study than that of a standard high school diploma. Examples of alternative diplomas are Certificate of Completion/Attendance, Certificate of Achievement, IEP/Special Education Diploma, or Occupational diploma ( Graduation Requirements and Diploma, 2009). At-risk student: are students who exhibit low self-esteem and low academic performance. These students are not experiencing any success in school and are potential dropouts (Donnelly, 1987). Community: A social group of any size that often has the same historical heritage and common culture that reside in a specific area and share government (Community, n.d.). Dropout: a person who rejects conventional society and/or quits or abandons a course of study (Dropout definition, n.d.). Family: a basic social unit consisting of one or more parent or adult and their children dwelling together or not (Family, n.d.). Graduate: a person who has completed a course of study and has earned a degree or diploma from a school, university, or college (Graduate, n.d.). Summary This chapter provided the introduction of the study on dropouts. It addressed the crisis of the dropout rate within the United States. This crisis not only affects those who dropout by increasing the likeliness of incarceration and living below the poverty line, but it also cost the nation millions of dollars because of the programs and aid that has to be provided to those who 22

qualify for it. This chapter also explained the obstacles that dropouts have to overcome that many times those with a high school diploma do not. The value of a diploma, reasons students were leaving, and the significance of the study was briefly introduced in this chapter. In this chapter the qualitative method was justified for the study. Using interviews and looking at the qualitative data is the best approach based off other theories that have looked at studies completed on dropouts. The methodologies for the study are one-on-one interviews with participants and follow-up interviews in order to obtain as much information as possible. The limitations of the study were also addressed within this chapter to identify issues that could possibly influence data collection and outcomes of the study. The definition of terms was presented in chapter I to insure the readers familiarity with vocabulary that is used within the study. Chapter II further reviews factors that influence students to leave high school before graduation. This chapter presented research on; student interest, student engagement, student behavior, student grades, parent involvement, family factors, community influences, gender and race, socioeconomic status, and incarceration rates. It also explained obstacles that dropouts must face in comparison to those that graduate from high school. Chapter II showed a closer look at what dropouts are costing Americans annually and progressively over a lifetime. Lastly, the research presented any preventative measures that can be implemented in order to keep our students in school. Chapter III demonstrated and explained the methodology of the study. It presented the information about the participants, the interviews, the place where the study was conducted, and how the data was categorized into different themes and subthemes. Chapter IV explained the outcomes and the findings of the research. In this chapter the data obtained from the study was 23

presented within their categories and themes, and are explained thoroughly for complete understanding. In chapter V, the researcher s knowledge and findings of the study are demonstrated, and conclusions about the data are presented and explained. Chapter II Literature Review This literature review observed research on factors that cause students to drop out of high school. This chapter is laid out in three major areas of literature. The initial category examines the factors that cause students to leave. The next section is about student engagement, motivational theory, and how they affect student achievement. Finally, a review of research on successful intervention programs was discussed. The research on factors that cause students to drop out identified an assortment of findings. Both qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method studies concluded that the increasing dropout rate was a problem for all education systems, and they reinforced the need for assessment and intervention. A team of researchers made up of Wells, Bechard, and Hambly (1989) found that a combination of factors, which they identified into four broad categories influence students decisions to leave prior to graduation. These categories, which are student related, school related, family related, and community related, are used within this chapter to categorize the factors that were identified throughout this study. 24

There are many ways in which school systems define a dropout. Being defined as a dropout is based on many various factors that each state looks at individually. In fact, the definition varies in every state. In many cases, it is hard to find the real dropout rate among the nation due to the various definitions in each state. In the state of Tennessee a dropout is an individual who: was enrolled in a school at some time during the previous school year; was not enrolled at the beginning of the current school year; has not graduated from high school or completed a state-approved educational program; and does not meet any of the following exclusionary conditions: transfer to another public school system, private system, or specifically approved state school; temporary absence due to suspension or excused illness; death ( Dropout and Truancy, 2015, p.1). There are many more definitions that can apply for the word dropout, but the ones stated above are the main definitions of a dropout in the state of Tennessee. The other facts that contribute to being considered a dropout have to with the defined period of the school year, facts about alternative certificates, that can be received, and many other concepts that apply to being labeled as a dropout. What does it mean to graduate? In many states, there are different definitions or paths to graduating high school. Many students earn what is called a regular diploma, while others complete an equivalency test and get what is called general educational development (GED), and lastly, some students receive alternate diplomas which have various requirements, such as attendance and passing a certain test provided by the state (High school dropout rates, 1996). Alternate diplomas are those that require less vigorous course of study than that of a standard high school diploma. Examples of alternative diplomas are Certificate of 25

Completion/Attendance, Certificate of Achievement, IEP/Special Education Diploma, or Occupational diploma ( Graduation Requirements and Diploma, 2009). A regular diploma is awarded when an individual completes all 12 years and passes the required course work (High school dropout rates, 1996). Since the implementation of the Tennessee Diploma project in 2009, a student is required to pass 22 credits to graduate and they are tested on core subject areas with end of the course exams (Graduation Requirements, 2015). High school graduation is extremely important due to the fact that many who fail to obtain a diploma end up earning extremely lower incomes than those that are successful graduates ( Reasons to Stay, n.d.). In fact, the U.S. Department of Labor states, high school dropouts are 72% more likely to be unemployed and earn $275 less that high school graduates ( So You Are Thinking, 2005). In another article, it states, The half-million young adults that dropped out from high school between October 1997 and October 1998 were much less likely to participate in the labor force (60.9%) less than their peers that graduated from high school (Cantave & Harrison, 1999, p.3). Moreover, High school dropouts earn $9,200 less per year on average than those who graduate. Over the course of their lifetimes, they will earn an average of $375,000 less than high school graduates, and roughly $1 million less than college graduates (Burrus & Roberts, 2012, p.1). The need for highly skilled workers is now becoming more of a necessity for today s job market. In order to be skilled in an area of work, an individual must attend school at least through the 12 th grade (Youth Who Drop, 2000). Another interesting statistic is that high school graduates earn $143 more per week than high school dropouts (Reasons To Stay, n.d., p. 2). Sadly, dropouts comprise a disproportionate percentage of the nations prison and death row inmates. Amazingly, 82% of prisoners in America are high school dropouts (Reasons To Stay, n.d., p. 2). Graduating with a high school 26

diploma of some kind will allow an individual to decide how he or she will live for the rest of their lives. It is not just a façade that graduating from high school is important; it is a fact because people that do not finish high school have little room for success. Dropouts cause problems not only for themselves, but for everyone else as well. The students that are choosing to leave high school before graduation cost the government money because they are more likely to receive government aid than those who choose to stay in school (Reasons To Stay, n.d.). For those who dropout of high school and cannot find jobs that provide health care or insurance often end up costing the U.S. taxpayers money in order to provide welfare, Medicaid, and emergency room assistance (Krugman, 2005). The societal cost of a dropout is an outrageous amount of money for taxpayers to pay. Each year s class of dropouts will cost the country over $200 billion during their lifetimes in lost earnings and unrealized tax revenue. Dropouts comprise nearly half of the heads on welfare and an even higher percentage of the prison population. (Hale, 1998, p. 1). The reason that most dropouts have trouble living successful lives is because over half of the dropouts leave when they are 15 to 16 years old (Youth Who Drop, 2000). Leaving at such a young age leaves them unprepared for jobs or situations that they will face throughout life. These dropouts are not only making it hard for themselves, but they are also placing a burden on society by having them pay for their debts. In today s society it is almost impossible to live comfortably without a college degree much less a high school diploma. People who drop out of high school mostly earn wages below the poverty level, which means the poverty rate for families headed by dropouts is more than twice that for families headed by high school graduates (Herbert, 2005, p. 3). Almost all 27

dropouts are defeated before they begin a future because they do not have a diploma. Although there are astonishing statistics that show the problems that high school dropouts must face, people are still choosing to quit school. What factors are causing them to leave? Factors That Influence Students to Drop Out Student-Related Indicators Student-related factors are often described as student actions that occur both in and outside of the school setting. Many times the student-related factors are negative student behaviors that cause the student to become less engaged in school. These factors include areas such as student behavior and disciplinary problems, academic achievement, and attendance. Research shows correlations between student behavior and academic performance with the dropout rate. Students who dropout have either disciplinary problems, truancy issues, may be on probation, or just do not do well in school ( Youth Who Drop, 2000). Students with disciplinary problems are 28% more likely to leave school than those who do not cause problems (Weis, Farrar, & Petrie, 1989). Children that are on probation for breaking the law are 32.7% likely to quit before graduation. In a longitudinal study conducted by Ekstrom, Goertz, Pollack, and Rock (1986) 248 girls and 247 boys were followed from grades 7-12. The researchers examined behavioral, cognitive, and demographic factors. They concluded that students who were previously known to have demonstrated high levels of aggressive behavior issues and scored lower academically were those that became dropouts (1986). In a longitudinal study conducted by Cairns, Cairns, and Neckerman (1989), relationships between behavioral, cognitive, and demographic factors were analyzed. They assessed 248 girls and 247 boys and observed them from grade 7 through either dropout or completion of high school. The study included individual interviews to assess the 28

14% who left school before grade 11. The researchers concluded that 82% of the males and 4% of the females with increased aggressiveness and low performing academics in the seventh grade had decided to drop out. According to United Way website, Academic performance is another key factor that was consistently cited as a factor that influences a student staying in school and graduating. Several research articles cited that the road to academic success starts early in the education system ( 3 Reasons Students, 2013, p.1). Academic performance is one of the most influencing factors that cause students to quit school. The authors Weis, Farrar, & Petrie (1989) express that 37.0% of students with grades C and below are more likely to leave school then those who make A s and B s. Students that have failing grades and have been retained are more likely to quit school. Students that left school said that they had to be retained in a class or failed, so they were too embarrassed to come to the same class the next year (Weis, Farrar, & Petrie, 1989). Alexander and Entwisle (2001) found that students that had been retained at any point during school career increased the likelihood of quitting school regardless of the reason for retention. According to Alexander and Entwisle, the highest predicting factor for dropouts was if a student had repeated a grade (2001). An early study on behavior and academic achievement while attending school and its effect on dropping out was conducted by Roderick (1993). She analyzed three dropout indicators for students starting in fourth grade through the completion of high school. The study showed reasons that can be used when determining the factors in dropping out. The three indicators included performance in classwork, engagement in school, and social background. In her study she compared dropouts with non-dropouts. She used history analysis to look at academic records including grades and attendance. She found a pattern displaying two separate 29

types of dropouts: the early ones who left between 7 th and 9 th grade, and the other dropouts that left later between grades 10 and 12. The findings showed that these two types of dropouts had very different academic performances through their educational careers. The students who left early showed poor academic performance as early as 4 th grade. The dropouts who left later had the same performances in 4 th grade, but showed tremendous regressions during the transitional years into middle and high school. Students with truancy issues are 33.2% likely to drop out of high school. In fact, Allensworth and Easton (2007) established that attendance was an immense factor of successfully completing high school. They found that absentee rates during transition years from elementary to middle school and middle school to high school were particularly significant in the dropout rate. Absenteeism was also identified as a primary indicator in student engagement. Cairns et al (1989) found that schools, which are diverse and highly normative, were found to be the most helpful for keeping kids on track and in school. Schools that fell in the subgroups of no clear normative culture and disenfranchised had higher rates of absenteeism. School structures that clearly defined that school culture were more likely to have a lower absentee rate. Bryk and Thum (1989) explained in their study about how the organizational structure of a school affects dropouts. The research used linear analysis to study what leads to absenteeism. The research found that school organizations with specific norms in place had less of a risk for student absenteeism, thus, lowering the dropout rate. In a study, conducted by the California Dropout Research Project, it was confirmed that 30,000 juvenile crimes would have been prevented and more than $550 million dollars would have been saved if the dropout rate were reduced by half. The same research project studied the 30

effect of dropouts on the state s economics, and determined that $46.6 billion are lost by the state for each group of 20 year olds that drops out (Belfield & Levin, 2007). School-Related Indicators School related factors defined by Wells et al (1989) are those factors that occur during the school day and are related to the structures and activities within the day. These factors include things such as school climate and learning environment, teacher student engagement, school structure, and school vision. Every school related factor has the ability to either keep students in school or deter them from finishing. Schools must find ways to keep students in school. When interviewed, some dropouts claim that they did not have a good enough high school experience. In one instance, a student expressed that her school was a waste of time and that the students would not even do their homework or class work and still get passing grades (Lagto, 2005). It was also exclaimed that teachers could not control the classroom, and she felt like it was a waste of her time to go to school every day when she was not learning (Lagto, 2005). The authors Weis, Farrar, and Petrie (1989) explained that 31% students just quit because they did not like school. In a different article, the author states that students with poor grades felt like there was no hope in continuing school ( Youth Who Drop, 2000). Another reason mentioned was that students do not feel safe at school so they choose to leave and to not finish at all. When students do not feel safe at school and are at risk to leave, counseling should be provided to the students, but on average, only one certified counselor is available for each 500 students in all schools and they have many assignments that have leaves little time to spend with the students that are at risk for dropping out ( Youth Who Drop, 2000, p.4). School structures characterized with safety and orderliness in a location that is accessible 31

and not-threatening can make a powerful contribution to dropout prevention (Bonikowske, 1987, p. 75). Learning institutions influence students success in so many ways. Some of these structures have been studied and have found to be positive influences on the dropout rate. Small learning communities, or schools within schools, help students feel engaged and important which increases academic performance in large high schools (Baker & Sansone, 1990). Some school systems have followed the small schools movement which was created with the financial support of Bill Gates. These schools continuously track and follow students to determine their cohort graduation rate. However, while some schools are successful, others show little to no change within the preliminary results (Gates, 2008). The vision of a school and the interaction the staff has with its students plays a substantial role in decreasing the number of dropouts. In an ethnographic case study conducted by Fine (1991) she described an environment where student-teacher engagement, school disciplinary policies, district policies and curriculum contributed to 40% of the dropout rate. Fine (1991) found that unsuccessful students were transferred to alternative schools, and staff members were asked to identify students that they thought was at-risk for leaving. Interviews with the teachers, students, administrators and counselors were conducted, recorded, and transcribed. Fine (1991) found that no prevention plan for dropouts existed, and the graduation rate was irrelevant to the goals of increasing both academic standard and student achievement. Within the interviews the principal shared her goal of developing a new approach to the standards within the courses, and students indicated that teachers that helped them excel shared the same qualities. These teachers strived to understand students point of views and tried to offset their feeling of powerlessness (Fine, 1991). 32

A school s focus usually lies in the hands of the administrators and district leaders. District leadership also plays a role in strategy development for teaching and learning. School leaders have a significant part in preventing dropouts, and the responsibility and accountability of decreasing the dropout rate lies within their plate of duties. School boards, superintendents, curriculum supervisors, school administrators, and teachers must engage in a successful partnership to collaborate and strive for a successful improvement agenda. In order to monitor prevention intervention efforts, school leaders must provide adequate resources, research based training, technical support, and current student driven data. School leaders must receive reinforcement and encouragement from their school board. This support leads to innovative schools and collaboration with employers and universities. Educational leaders struggle at every level to proactively implement programs that prevent students from dropping out, and prepare those who graduate from college and careers. In the report, The District Leadership Challenge: Empowering Principals to Improve Teaching and Learning, Bottoms and Fry (2009) found that school systems have to advance working environments and support for high school administrators. Without improvements, the nation will continuously be plagued by the increasing dropout rates and the ill prepared workers for the job market. The report also found after interviewing administrators from both high and low performing schools that relationships between curriculum supervisors and high school administrators can advance or decrease the principal s ability to efficiently lead a school in order to receive higher achievement levels. This same report also noted that principals with schools that were most improved had better working relationships with the district and felt like the district had little control over decisions about the individual school improvement. On the other hand, administrators of schools with little improvement felt like the improvement reforms were 33

centralized in the district office and they were tightly controlled by the district (Bottoms & Fry, 2009). Reform strategies such as; utilizing school time so teachers can work together on instructional problems, additional staff that are highly qualified in their expertise of instruction, extra tutoring and support for students, and access to advanced up to date materials all result in successful school districts. Lastly, Bottoms and Fry (2009) state The research is clear and overwhelming: If school districts want high-achieving high schools, they must empower principals to be leaders of change (p. 12). Family-Related Indicators Family factors include qualities like family environment, composition, socio-economic status, and drug use in the home. According to Wells t al (1989), family related factors are more likely the cause of students leaving school. Parental support, parenthood, and other home life related factors are the very ones that contribute to a student s decision to leave or stay in school. Wells et all (1989) explained that a lack of parent support along with an abusive home is connected with a higher incidence of dropping out. Lastly, factors such as living in a violent dysfunctional home, a home were drugs and alcohol are abused, a home where family deficiencies are present, a home where a language other than the primary language of the educational institute is spoken, and a lack of parental education have all been linked with student dropouts (1989). For most students, family support has a lot to do with whether or not the individual is going to quit school before graduation, or whether he or she will complete all 12 years and receive a diploma (Hale, 1998). In an article posted on the United Way website, parent engagement was one of the leading reasons why students were not completing their education. It 34

stated, if parents are engaged early in the child s education, then the child is more likely to be successful in school. A parent s support in their child s education shows the child that their educational career is important. The parental support consequently increases the child s likelihood of having successful academic achievement ( 3 Reasons Students, 2013). Many times family deficiencies have to do with the decision of dropping out. If a student has a structural deficient home then this means he or she lives in a single-parent family (Weis, Farrar, & Petrie, 1989). Sometimes the parent is working to survive and does not have much time to support the child in school. This is often the case in which students decide to quit and begin working because they feel obligated to assist in paying the bills (Weis, Farrar, & Petrie). Another family type is the functional deficient household. This is when the student s parents have no interest in the child or his or her schooling, and there is no true communication between the parents and the child (Weis, Farrar, & Petrie, 1989). In these households children have the freedom to make what decisions they want, and many times are not responsible enough to know whether or not they should stay in school (Weis, Farrar, Petrie, 1989). Rumberger s (2003) research shows that students from single parent and large family homes have less adult contact and limited resources to help them with their schoolwork. He also concluded that the educational achievement of the parents connected with the likelihood of a student dropping out, meaning parents who quit school before graduation were more likely to have children that dropped out (Rumberger, 2003). The support of the family is a significant influence that students need in order to finish high school (Hale, 1998). Ginsberg and Miller Cribbs (2000) explained that students, living in homes where other languages are spoken that are not that of the primary language of the school, have a connection to a higher rate of dropping out of school. The same study showed links between dropouts and 35