Predictig Teachers ICT Itegratio i the Classroom Cheerapor Sagkawetai, Kig Mogkut s Uiversity of Techology Thoburi, Thailad Ravider Koul, The Pesylvaia State Uiversity, USA Jariya Neachaleay, Kig Mogkut s Uiversity of Techology Thoburi, Thailad The IAFOR Iteratioal Coferece o Educatio 2016 Official Coferece Proceedigs Abstract This study was coducted to explore the teacher factors associated with the frequecy of the use of ICT for istructioal purposes i the K-12 classroom. Survey data was collected from teachers i Thailad i order to examie how teachers use ICT as a tool for teachig ad supportig studets learig i the classroom. Additioally, the atecedets of ICT use for support studets learig such as teachers beliefs (persoal teachig efficacy beliefs ad self-efficacy toward ICT itegratio), ICT traiig experiece, ICT ifrastructure ad demographical variables (geder, teachig experiece) were take ito accout. Correlatio ad hierarchical regressio aalysis were applied i the study. The results idicated that teachers are more likely to use ICT for teachig materials preparatio ad less likely to assig studets to use ICT for their learig. The frequecy of ICT use to support studets s learig has a positive relatioship with ICT traiig experiece ad self-efficacy toward ICT itegratio but has a egative relatioship with female ad teachig experiece. Regressio aalysis results showed that self-efficacy toward ICT itegratio is the strogest predictor for ICT use to support studets learig. The fidigs are of particular importace to sustaiig teacher developmet program ad shed light o how to support teachers o ICT itegratio i the classroom. Keywords: Self-efficacy beliefs; ICT itegratio; Techology itegratio iafor The Iteratioal Academic Forum www.iafor.org
Itroductio May studies durig the past decades about promotio of ICT as a learig ad teachig tool i educatioal systems have focused o ehacig studets learig outcomes, for example, Hakkaraie et al., 2000; Hopso, Simms& Kezek, 2002; Keegwa, 2007; Cox & Marshall, 2007 ad Domiguez et al., 2013. May researchers provided a variety of ways o how to itegrate ICT ito teachig practices (Kozma & Aderso, 2002; Jimoyiais, 2010). I additio, the previous studies also described the coceptualizatio of ICT itegratio which ca fostered developmet of 21st-cetury skills of studets (Pederse & Yerrick, 2000; Law 2009; Wag, Hsu, Reeves, & Coster, 2014). Thus, teachers have a critical role to promote learig with ICT i the classroom cotext by developig ew curricula ad ew pedagogies (UNESCO, 2011). Commoly, ICT i schools refers to hardware, software ad other tools (e.g. persoal computers, laptops, smartphoes, priters, LCD projectors, digital cameras, Iteret, multimedia resources, databases, Web sites, ad word-processig programs). Additioally, there is a expectatio for educators to proficietly use these techologies i their teachig ad learig process (Martiovic & Zhag, 2012). A review i this domai idetified similar terms beig used i the same cotext i.e. ICT itegratio ad Techology itegratio. Hew & Brush (2007) viewed techology itegratio as typically iclude the use of computig devices for istructio (p.225). Ertmer & Ottebreit-Leftwich (2010) highlighted techologies as the tools to facilitate meaigful learig which eables studets to costruct deep ad coected kowledge, which ca be applied to real situatios (p.257). UNESCO (2011) emphasized the outcomes ad persistece to learig with ICT i Educatio ad believed that ICT ca chage the ature of teachig ad learig. Recetly, Thailad s govermet by Miistry of Iformatio ad Commuicatio Techology (MICT) has lauched the ICT Policy for 2011-2020 or ICT 2020 as SMART THAILAND 2020 to drive the coutry forward by usig ICT to icrease the Quality of life i the aspect of Educatio (MICT, 2011). I additio, The Miistry of Educatio i Thailad (2015) respoded to the govermet s policy by releasig the MOE ICT Masterpla (MOE, 2011). I the area of professioal developmet for preservice ad i-service teachers, ICT has bee promoted as the essetial tool ad ecouraged teachers to itegrate ICT i the istructioal practices (MOE, 2011). The target of MOE s ICT Educatio Masterpla 2011 was utilizatio of ICT i all levels of educatio ad 80% of teachers ad educatioal persoel to have soud ICT kowledge (MOE, 2011). However, success at a implemetatio level is still questioable. UNESCO (2014) reported that teachers actual use of ICT i the classroom was icreasig but the teachers were usig traditioal teacher-cetred approaches such as usig slides ad drill-ad-practice exercises ad omissio to use ICT to iovative teachig. The teachers realized the importace of ICT itegratio for productive classroom activities. However, teachers were icapable of itegratig ICT i their teachig while professioal developmet was ot sufficiet to develop the skill of implemetatio (Laohajaratsag, 2010). Whe cosiderig ICT use i educatio, teachers should desig how to itegrate techology with their pecific subject. There are may differet ways of ICT itegratio i the classroom. Russell, Bebell, O Dwyer, & O Coor (2003) examied 2,894 teachers to use techology for differet istructioal purposes such as usig e-mail,
creatig quizzes ad tests, preparig lessos ad ask studets to do the task with ICT for example: writig a paper ad usig spreadsheets or creatig Web pages. Iterestigly, the result showed that teachers frequetly use ICT more for preparatio ad commuicatio tha for deliverig istructio or assigig learig activities that require the use of techology. The Secod Iteratioal Techology i Educatio Study 2006 (SITES, 2006) coducted the study to idetify the ways i which teachers use ICT i the classroom supported by their geeral pedagogical orietatio ad capability. There were 22 educatio systems from aroud the world (icludig Thailad) participated i SITES 2006. The data were collected by a survey desig for teachers of mathematics ad sciece i Grade 8. The result showed that the percetage of teachers reportig ICT use was sigificatly higher amog sciece teachers tha amog mathematics teachers. I additio, more tha half of sciece teachers reported havig used ICT i exteded projects, short-task projects, product creatio, teacher lectures, ad lookig up ideas ad iformatio (Law, 2009). However, the previous study foud that teachers ICT usage for teachig ad learig practices were still traditioally orietatio. O the other hads, teachers ICT adoptio does ot ecessarily chage the view of teachers to use iovative model of 21st cetury pedagogical orietatio (Law, 2009). Peeraer & Petegem (2012) developed the istrumets for measuremet of the frequecy of teacher use of ICT for teachig ad learig. This set of istrumets icorporated the 21st-cetury skills based o UNESCO (2003) ICT competecies framework. The costructs of ICT itegratio i educatio listed i this study were divided ito two groups: ICT use for teachig ad ICT use for supportig of studet learig. The items represeted the teachers perceptio of usig ICT i teachig were for preparatio, for presetatio of lesso material ad for pedagogical use. The other idicators focused o studet iovative use of ICT represeted by teachers perceived use of ICT for support of studet learig. The set of items referred to ICT as tools for the developmet of ICT-related skills ad the ehacemet of learig outcomes. The studets were suggested to use ICT to improve their skills with ICT as the learig tools. The result cocluded that the majority of teachers occasioally used ICT to replace their existig teachig practice or to ehace studet learig. However, the iovative use of ICT i support of studet learig was still very scarce. The Iteratioal Computer ad Iformatio Literacy Study 2013 (ICILS 2013) reported similar fidigs. ICILS 2013 focused o the assessmet of computer ad iformatio literacy of studets i the digital age as well as the ICT learig eviromet, such as teachers ICT usage from over 3,300 schools of 21 participatig coutries. The result showed that teachers most frequetly used ICT i their classes for simple tasks such as word-processig, presetatios, ad iformatio resources (e.g. websites, wikis, ad ecyclopedias). Teachers also reported that, withi their classrooms, ICT was most geerally beig utilized by their studets to search for iformatio, work o short tasks, ad study o learig materials by idividual work. Moreover, teachers teded to use ICT i teachig whe they were cofidet i their ICT skills. Less tha 50% of teachers expressed that they were able to use ICT for more complex tasks, such as maagig software ad hardware ad workig with others by sharig tools or resources. Older teachers lacked self-cofidet i ICT use tha their youger colleagues. I additio, the ICT itegratio i schools remais limited (Fraillo, Ailey, Schulz, Friedma & Gebhardt, 2014).
Several researchers studied barriers that held teachers back from itegratig ICT i teachig practices. Ertmer (1999) reviewed the barriers of both preservice ad iservice teachers with the fidigs that ca support teachers i ICT use. First-order barriers (e.g., lack of techical skills eeded to operate a computer, lack of support ICT ifrastructure) ca seriously limit ICT use i the classroom. Teachers also felt frustrated ad were resistat to usig ICT (Vaderlide & Braak, 2010). From a study by Che (2010), teachers use of techology was iflueced by extrisic factors such as techological equipmet. The availability of material resources i the classroom (i.e., computers, software, ad coectivity), also a extrisic factor, positively iflueced teachers beliefs ad teachers readiess for ICT itegratio (Ia & Lowther, 2010). Secod-order barriers also ifluece teacher beliefs about teachig, ad beliefs about ICT itegratio i classroom practices. Teachers belief iflueces the decisio whether to ad how to itegrate techology i educatioal practice (Ertmer, 2005; Hew & Brush, 2007; Paraskeve, Bouta & Papagiai, 2008). Teachers with high perceived selfefficacy toward ICT itegratio will have tedecy to itegrate ICT ito the learig eviromet to motivate ad promote studet outcomes (Badura, 1982; Gassert, Shroyer, & Staver 1996; Hoy & Spero, 2005). O the other had, teachers who perceived themselves as lackig the capabilities i techology ad persistece to obstacles or challeges of ew circumstaces ted to avoid maagig ad settig ICT eviromet for their studets (Badura, 1982; Compeau & Higgis, 1995; Paraskeve, Bouta & Papagiai, 2008). Recogizig the importace of preparig i-service teachers to effectively itegrate ICT i the classroom, the purpose of this study is to idetify the ways i which teachers itegrate ICT i their teachig or supportig studets learig i the classroom. Moreover, examiatio of relatioship betwee factors that ifluece teachers use ICT itegratio i teachig practices is a importat key to uderstadig how to motivate them to use ICT ad to overcome barriers to teachig with ICT. The demographic characteristics of teachers (geder, teachig experiece ad prior experiece i ICT traiig) ad self-efficacy toward ICT itegratio have bee studied i relatio to efficacy i ICT use. This study also aims to uderstad more clearly the costruct ifluecig ICT itegratio i Sciece, Mathematics ad Techology teachers i the K-12 classroom. Methodology Participats ad procedure The survey was carried out at the ed of the secod semester, the school year 2014 2015. The participats for this study were school teachers from Thailad, 261 (32.2 %) were primary teachers ad 549 (67.8%) secodary teachers. Amog these 325 (40.1%) taught sciece, 257 (31.7%) mathematics ad 228 (28.1%) techology. The majority of participats were female, 529 female ad 281 male. The average age of the sample was 41.8 years (SD = 8.43) with the mea teachig experiece of 15.3 years (SD = 10.95). These teachers had prior experiece i ICT traiig i the past three years ragig from ever to five times or more, with a mea of 2.4 times (SD =1.67). The selectio method started with stratified radom samplig i order to select the schools. The questioaires were set by post. The questioaire examied how teachers use ICT as a tool for teachig ad supportig studets learig i the classroom. The data
were aalyze for the relatioship betwee ICT use for support studets learig, persoal teachig efficacy, self-efficacy i ICT itegratio, ICT ifrastructure ad demographics data. Istrumet The research istrumets for the data collectio were: (i) The demographic questioaire regardig geder, teachers subject areas, teachig experiece, previous ICT traiig. (ii) The Persoal Teachig Efficacy Scale was first developed by Gibso ad Dembo (1984). The scale is a four item, Likert-type scale ragig from 1 (Strogly Disagree) to 5 (Strogly Agree) that measures a teachers beliefs i their teachig abilities to brig about the positive studets behavioral chage (Gibso & Dembo, 1984; Ross, Cousis & Gadalla, 1996). (iii) The Self-Efficacy Belief toward ICT Itegratio Scale was modified from the Persoal Iteret Teachig Efficacy Beliefs Scale (PITEBS) by Koul (1999). This scale was developed to measure teacher cofidece i teachig with ICT. It icludes 9 items that are scored usig a five-poit respose. (iv) The ICT Ifrastructure Scale by (Vaderlide & Braak, 2010) was developed to measure teachers perceptios about the istructioal resources. It icludes 4 Likertscale items. (v) ICT use for teachig ad ICT use for support studets learig were first developed by Peeraer & Petegem (2012). The self-report measuremet assesses the perceived frequecy of teachers i ICT use for teachig ad for support of studet learig. It icludes 7 items measurig teachers use of ICT for teachig purposes ad 7 items for measurig teachers use of ICT for support of studet learig. This study adapted the respose level to ever, rarely, sometimes, ofte, ad daily. Results Frequecy couts, correlatio, ad regressio were used to aalyze the data. A summary of the descriptive statistics of ICT use for teachig ad support studet learig follows i Table 1 ad 2 respectively. I Table 1, word processig ad Iteret were the most frequetly reported method of ICT use. As ca be see, about 98.5% of the teachers used word processig for the productio of documets ad the Iteret as a source of iformatio. Oly 1.5% of the teachers reported ever usig word processig ad the Iteret for teachig purpose.
Table 1: Frequecy ad percetage of teacher use ICT i teachig (=) Teachig Practices 1. Productio of documets by word processig Never Rarely Sometimes Ofte Daily 12 (1.5) 24 (3.0) 162 (20) 340 (42) 272 (33.5) Total Mea (SD.) 4.03 (0.89) 2. Presetatio 20 (2.5) 58 (7.2) 202 (24.9) 325 (40.1) 205 (25.3) 3.77 (0.98) 3. Use specific software 56 (6.9) 86 (10.6) 250 (30.9) 284 (35.1) 134 (16.5) 3.44 (1.00) 4. CD-ROM/DVD as resource materials 14 (1.7) 83 (10.2) 271 (33.5) 336 (41.5) 106 (13.1) 3.54 (0.91) 5. Electroic Commuicatio with studets 45 (5.6) 61 (7.5) 176 (21.7) 331 (40.9) 197 (24.3) 3.71 (1.09) 6. Iteret/WWW as a source of iformatio 12 (1.5) 41 (5.1) 119 (14.7) 351 (43.3) 287 (35.4) 4.06 (0.91) 7. Use classroom maagemet software 189 (23.3) 90 (11.1) 209 (25.8) 222 (27.4) 100 (12.3) 80 2.94 (1.35) Teachers use of ICT for presetatio ad electroic commuicatio with studets were less frequet, as compared to the use of word processig ad the Iteret. Oly about half of the teachers reported ofte or daily for use of subject specific software ad CD-ROM/DVD as resource materials (51.60% ad 54.60%, respectively). Fially, about 23.30% of teachers stated that they had ever used classroom maagemet software i a computer classroom settig. Table 2 shows that data collectig ad iformatio gatherig from digital resources were the ICT activities that the teachers most frequetly assiged to studets. As ca be see, the umber of teachers who ofte or daily assiged these ICT activities were 69.5% ad 64.3%, respectively. The secod most commoly assiged ICT activity was the computer use by studets to sythesizig kowledge (62.4%). About 60.7% of the teachers ofte or frequetly assiged studets to ICT to commuicate with others. More tha half of the teachers (59.8%) assiged studets to work with a computer to solve a problem ad studets itegrated differet media to create products. Fially, about 6.9 % of teachers had ever assiged studets to give a presetatio supported by a computer.
Table 2: Frequecy ad percetage of teacher use ICT for supportig studets learig (=) Ways to Support Studet Learig 1. Work with the computer to orietate themselves to a ew subject Never Rarely Sometimes Ofte Daily Total Mea (SD.) 34 71 277 303 125 3.51 (4.2) (8.8) (34.2) (37.4) (15.4) (1.00) 2. Gather iformatio from digital resource 15 (1.9) 61 (7.5) 213 (26.3) 364 (44.9) 157 (19.4) 3.72 (0.92) 3. Use techology to collected data 19 (2.3) 62 (7.7) 166 (20.5) 371 (45.8) 192 (23.7) 3.81 (0.96) 4. Work with a computer program to solve problems 32 (4.0) 70 (8.6) 224 (27.7) 353 (43.6) 131 (16.2) 3.59 (0.99) 5. Give a presetatio with a computer 56 (6.9) 76 (9.4) 219 (27) 314 (38.8) 145 (18.9) 3.51 (1.10) 6. Itegrate differet media create products to 32 (4.0) 84 (10.4) 210 (25.9) 348 (43) 136 (16.8) 3.58 (1.01) 7. Sythesize their kowledge 27 (3.3) 75 (9.3) 203 (25.1) 379 (46.8) 126 (15.6) 80 3.62 (0.97) 8. Commuicate with others (locally ad/or globally) 39 (4.8) 72 (8.9) 208 (25.7) 352 (43.5) 139 (17.2) 80 3.59 (1.03)
I terms of usig ICT for teachig activities, as compare to the usig ICT for supportig studets learig activities, with meas of 3.77 ad 3.62 respectively. It should be further oted that teachers are more likely to use ICT for preparig teachig materials ad less likely to assig studets to use ICT for their learig. Table 3: Correlatios, Meas, ad Stadard Deviatios amog ICT use for supportig studets learig, ICT ifrastructure, demographics ad self-efficacy variables. (N = ) 1. ICT use for Support Studet Learig 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 M SD - - -.24*.33**.49** 3.62 0.85.18*.13* *.29* * * * 2. Geder - - - - - -.01.09*.09*.15**.19** 1.65 0.48 3. Teachig - 15.3 10.9 -.02.08* -.03 -.12** experiece 4 5 4. Persoal Teachig -.32*.11**.55** Efficacy * 4.03 0.52 5. ICT Ifrastructure -.33**.11** 3.62 0.80 6. ICT Traiig -.23** experiece 2.44 1.67 7. Self- efficacy - 3.94 0.55 toward ICT Itegratio *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01 As ca be see i Table3, the associatios of the variables i this study, zero-order correlatios were calculated. I terms of the outcomes of iterest, ICT use for support studet learig was positively related to persoal teachig efficacy (r =.24, p <.001), ICT ifrastructure (r =.29, p <.001), ICT traiig experiece (r=.33, p <.001) ad selfefficacy toward ICT itegratio (r =.49, p <.001). Fially, geder ad teachig experiece were egatively to edorse ICT use for supportig studets learig (r = -.18 ad r =-.13, respectively, both p <.001). To examie the extet to which teachers perceptios of ICT ifrastructure, persoal teachig efficacy, ICT traiig experiece, ad self-efficacy toward ICT itegratio predicted chages i teacher use ICT for supportig studets learig. A series of hierarchical regressio aalyzes were coducted.
Table 4: Summary of Hierarchical Regressio Aalysis for Geder, Persoal Teachig Efficacy, ICT Ifrastructure, ICT Traiig Experiece ad Self-Efficacy ICT Itegratio Predictig ICT use for Support studet learig (N= ) Variable B SE(B) β R 2 R 2 Step1.03.03*** Geder -.31.06 -.18*** Step 2.05.02*** Geder Teachig Experiece -.31 -.01.06.00 -.18*** -.13*** Step 3 Geder Teachig Experiece Persoal Teachig Efficacy Step 4 Geder Teachig Experiece Persoal Teachig Efficacy ICT Ifrastructure Step 5 Geder Teachig Experiece Persoal Teachig Efficacy ICT Ifrastructure ICT Traiig Experiece Step 6 Geder Teachig Experiece Persoal Teachig Efficacy ICT Ifrastructure ICT Traiig Experiece Self-efficacy Itegratio ICT -.28 -.01.36 -.25 -.01.23.26 -.19 -.01.20.24.14 -.11 -.01 -.10.17.11.61.06.00.05.06.00.06.04.06.00.05.04.02.05.00.06.03.02.06 *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001. Note. R + = Chage i R +. Adjust R + =.32. -.16*** -.13***.22*** -.14*** -.15***.14***.25*** -.10*** -.14***.12***.23***.28*** -.06* -.09*** -.06.16***.22***.40***.09.05***.15.05***.22.07***.32.10*** The results of aalysis were show i Tables 4. These results respod to the research questios about the importat factors for predictig of ICT itegratio. Self-efficacy toward ICT itegratio is the strogest predictor for ICT use to support studets learig. Furthermore, ICT traiig experiece, ICT ifrastructure, Teachig experiece ad geder explaied additioal variace i ICT use to support studets learig. I the first ad-ad secod step of this aalysis, the geder ad teachig experiece were a sigificat predictor (β = -.18 ad β = -.13, p <.001), accouted for 3% ad 5% of the variace i the outcome of each step respectively. Whe a persoal teachig efficacy was added to the equatio (Step 3), the coefficiet of geder dropped to -.16 (p <.001). I step4, whe ICT ifrastructure was take ito accout, teachers were more likely to edorse ICT for support studet learig (β =.25, p <.001), accouted
for 15% of the variace i the outcome. I step5, whe ICT traiig experiece was added to the equatio, (β =.28, p <.001), the accouted for the variace i the outcome was added to 22%. I the last step, whe self-efficacy toward ICT itegratio was take ito accout, teachers were more likely to use ICT for supportig studets learig (β =.40, p <.001), ad the coefficiet for persoal teachig efficacy dropped to -.06 ad geder dropped to -.06 (p <.05). I additio, perceptios of geder, teachig experiece, persoal teachig efficacy, ICT ifrastructure ad ICT traiig experiece accouted for a additioal 7% of the variace (R + =.22, p <.001, R + =.07, p <.001) whereas self-efficacy i ICT itegratio added a further 10% (R + =.32, p <.001, R + =.10, p <.001). Discussio Our results clearly implicate that teachers more frequecy use ICT for preparig material for teachig tha use ICT for supportig studets learig or assigig them to do the activities by usig ICT (Law, 2009; Hsu, 2011). This study foud that the most frequetly of ICT usage for teachig purpose were word processig for preparig the documet ad Iteret as the source of iformatio for lecturig. While teachers most frequetly use ICT for supportig studets learig were assig studets to collect data by usig ICT ad gather iformatio from digital resources. Eve so, for both result ad discussio, it ca be proposed that teachers use ICT for teachig as a less iovative way by replacig ad ehacig teachig practices from the traditioal such as the use of electroic practices ad drill exercises for revisio (Peeraer & Petegem, 2012). I additio, teachers perceived to use ICT for supportig studets learig focused o iovative ways for usig ICT tools by studets as acquisitio ad maipulatio of the existig iformatio for the developmet of ICT-related skills ad ehacemet of learig outcomes (Peeraer & Petegem, 2012). More tha the half of frequetly use ICT to support studets learig, teachers assiged studets for costructig ad sythesizig kowledge. It ca be suggested that teachers prefer to use ICT to support studet-cetred learig approach. They eed to desig a flexible ways to use ICT for creatig studet-cetred activities to egage studets while they use ICT as a tool for processig deepeig kowledge, supportig durig problem-solvig ad promotig ability to thik critically about iformatio (Liu, 2011; Martiovic & Zhag, 2012). Aother key fidig from this study is that self-efficacy towards ICT itegratio also positively ifluece ICT itegratio for support studets learig. The added value of this fidig is that the moderatig effect of teacher perceptio of ICT use. This implies that if teachers perceive i cofidet to use ICT i educatio, they are more eager to itegrate ICT ito their teachig practices for support studets learig. This fidig is i accordace with the fidigs of previous studies (Paraskeva, 2008; Che, 2010; ICILS, 2013). Furthermore, Teachers experiece i ICT traiig, ICT ifrastructure ad self-efficacy toward ICT itegratio as the importat variables that ca predict the frequecy of ICT itegratio i the classroom. It also cocluded that teachers were more likely to use ICT if they were cofidet whe usig these tools with their teachig, if they had experieced i ICT-related professioal developmet, ad if there were relatively few ICT costraits for accessibility or availability of hardware ad software (Law, 2009). However, the result of the curret study also idicates that the two variables that represeted teacher s demographic characteristics (geder ad teachig experiece) had a egative relatioship with ICT itegratio. Female ad teachers who
have more teachig experiece teded to be less likely use ICT itegratio tha male ad their youger teachers (Ia & Lowther, 2010). Coclusio I coclusio, the curret study supports previous research emphasizig for the importat obstacles to use ICT ad explaiig the tedecy of teachers ICT usage to support studets learig through their istructioal practices. Recet research has revealed importat liks betwee differet aspects of teachers perceived i sese of efficacy (Wolters, 2007) ad the itegratio of ICT cotext ito the learig eviromet. Future research is eeded to explore the possible ifluece of goals effect o learig strategies such as deep or surface learig which teachers ted to use i their classroom. It would be valuable for developig teachers traiig course ca chage the cofidece of teachers to itegrate ICT as educatioal tools ad also add the skills i teachig strategies for how to ehace studets learig ability i log-term persistece of academic s achievemet.
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