4. Phrases 4.1 What is a phrase? SENTENCE CLAUSE PHRASE WORD MORPHEME Words combine together to form phrases according to rules called phrase structure rules. The set of phrase structure rules for a language form a generative grammar. Different phrase structure rules generate phrases of different categorical structure: noun phrases (NP), verb phrases (VP), prepositional phrases (PP), adjective phrases (AP), adverbial phrases (AdvP), etc. 4.2 Phrase types: are they parallel? 4.2.1 Noun Phrases (NP) The following phrase structure rule NP Det (AP) N (S) (PP) generate grammatical NP: [ NP [ N I ]] love [ NP [ N chocolate]] [ NP The [ N tramp]] read [ NP the [ N diary]] [ NP [ Det Both][ N girls]] enjoy [ NP [ AP classical] [ N music]] [ NP [ Det The] [ N diary] [ S which the tramp was reading]] was amusing [ NP [ Det Two] [ N boys] [ PP with red hair]] entered the room A noun phrase contains a head noun that is non-omissible. The head noun may be preceded by a determiner specifier and an adjective that modifies the noun (premodifier): The head noun may be followed by a postmodifier LANE 334 2011-2012 1
NP specifier pre-modifier N post-modifier for example, [ NP The diary which the tramp was reading] was amusing NP Det N S The diary which the tramp was reading Do all NPs share the same selectional restrictions? The head noun (N) is obligatorily. The determiner (Det) in the specifier position is sometimes obligatory. The pre- and post- modifiers are optional, so they are adjuncts. 4.2.2 Verb Phrases (VP) Is it only ONE phrase structure rule that generate VPs? Do all verbs belong to the same type? to laugh a) The tramp laughed b) * The tramp laughed the little kid. VP V to lean a) The tramp leaned towards the German girl. b) * The tramp leaned. VP V PP LANE 334 2011-2012 2
to be a) The story is interesting b) The story is on the table c) The story is mine d) * The story is to say a) The tramp says ugly words. b) The tramp says that he is poor. c) * The tramp says VP V to put AdjP PP NP VP V NP S to tell a) The tramp put the chocolate on the table. b) * The tramp put on the table. VP V NP PP a) He told the girl an interesting story. b) He told an interesting story to the girl. c)* He told an interesting. d) * He told the girl. VP V NP NP VP V NP PP to call a) He called her a clever girl. b) He called her clever. b) * He called a clever girl. c) * He called her a clever girl. VP V NP NP AP Each verb seems to have a different rule (or rules) for generating verb phrases. Verbs fall into different (sub)categories depending on the number and category of phrasal complement, if any, they required they required to form a grammatical VP. Intransitive verbs subcategorise for 0 complement (e.g. laugh, sleep, etc.) LANE 334 2011-2012 3
Intransitive verbs subcategorise for 1 adverbial PP complement (e.g. lean, move, etc.) Copula verbs subcategorise for 1 AP, NP, or PP (e.g. be) Monotransitive verbs subcategorise for 1 NP or S (e,g, says, believe). Transitive verbs subcategorise for 1 NP and 1 adverbial PP complement (e.g. put, lay, etc.) Ditransitive verbs subcategorise for 2 complements 1 NP plus 1 PP or 2 NPs (e.g. told, send). Complex transitive verbs subcategorise for 2 complements 1 NP plus 1 AP or 2 NPs (e.g. call, put). 4.2.2.1 Adjuncts Extra information that is not required for the interpretation of a predicate. Constituents which are not part of a predicate s subcategorisation frame. He unfolded his magazine He unfolded his magazine [ PP for the girl]. He unfolded his magazine [ AdvP quite unexpectedly] He unfolded his magazine [ S' because he wanted to read it] Adjuncts are not subcategorized complements. Adjuncts are optional that can be omitted without affecting the grammaticality of the sentence. What is the difference between complements and adjuncts? Subcategorised Complements vs. adjuncts Complements are obligatory whereas adjuncts are optional Complements are indicated in predicate s subcategorisation frame whereas adjuncts are not. Complements are part of the lexical entry whereas adjuncts are not. 4.2.2.2 Auxiliaries Auxiliaries are elements preceding the verb. Auxiliaries are model auxiliaries and primary auxiliaries. LANE 334 2011-2012 4
Model auxiliaries are will, would can could, may, might, shall, should, etc. Primary auxiliaries are have, be, do that are used to indicate the aspect (Perfect and Progressive), voice. Do auxiliaries come in order? a) The dog may have been being given a bone b) * The dog have may been being given a bone c) * The dog may been have being given a bone d) * The dog may have been being given a bone Auxiliaries come in specific order: Order of auxiliaries: 1. Tense or model : model + V [infinitive] a) Sue may give the dog a bone b) Sue give may the dog a bone 2. Perfect: have + V [-en] a) Sue may have given the dog a bone b)* Sue have may given the dog a bone 3. Progressive: be + V [-ing] a) Sue may have been giving the dog a bone b)* Sue may be have giving the dog a bone 4. Passive: be + V [-en] a) The dog may have been being given a bone b) * The dog may have being been given a bone c) 4.2.3 Prepositional Phrases (PP) Prepositional phrases consist of a preposition (P) head. LANE 334 2011-2012 5
The PS rule PP (advp) P NP (NP) generates grammatical PPs: PP AdvP P NP right on the spot in the corner to the tramp with red hair right on the spot straight through the wall three inches above the wall 4.2.4 Adjective Phrases (AP) Adjective phrases contain an adjective (A/Adj) head. The PS rule AP (AdvP) A (PP) (S) generate grammatical APs: young German very soft worried about the future extremely afraid that she might die [ AP [ AdvP [ Adv extremely]] [ A afraid] [ S that she might die]] AP AdvP A S Adv extremely afraid that she might die Adjective phrases (AP) occur as adjuncts inside a NP or as predicative complement after copular and other linking verbs: LANE 334 2011-2012 6
[ NP The [ AP young] girl] decided to depend on herself He leaned towards [ NP the [ AP German] girl] Her voice [ VP was [ AP very soft]] She [ VP is [ AP afraid that she might die]] 4.2.5 Adverbial Phrases (AdvP) Adverb phrases contain an adverb (Adv) head. The following PS rule AdvP (Adv) Adv generates grammatical adverbial phrases: again slowly then very soon extremely slowly AdvP Adv extremely Adv slowly Adverb phrases (AdvP) are adjuncts that occur inside a VP or a AP: He [ VP left very recently] She [ VP copied the documents quite accurately] An [ AP unexpectedly large] crowd took part in the demonstration He is [ AP typically British] LANE 334 2011-2012 7
A generalized phrase structure: NP Det N PP two boys with red hair VP Aux V NP have read the diary PP AdvP P NP right on the spot AP AdvP A PP Adv worried about the future extremely a) each phrase type (XP) has a Head (X); b) the Head (X) may be preceded by a Specifier (Spec); c) the Head (X) may be followed by Complements plus d) adjuncts that optionally occur initially or finally. XP specifier X complement X is V if XP is VP; X is N if XP is NP; X is P if XP is PP; X is A/Adj if XP is AP; X is adv if XP is AdvP. The specifier position is available for: Det or AP if X is N Aux if X is V AdvP or NP if X is P AdvP if X is A Adv if X is Adv LANE 334 2011-2012 8
The complement position is available for: PP or S if X is N NP, PP, AP, or S if X is V NP if X is P PP or S if X is A 4.7 Summary Phrases are formed by combining words together according to phrase structure rules. Phrases are of different categories: VP headed by V, NP headed by N, PP headed by P, AP headed, AdvP headed by Adv, etc. Reading for this lecture: Wekker&Haegeman (1985: 35-56) LANE 334 2011-2012 9