348 The Reading/Writing Connection: A Selected Annotated Bibliography The references appended to each chapter of this book include a wide array of relevant resources on the reading/writing connection. I have found the following articles and books to be particularly illuminating. Allen, J. (1995). It s never too late: Leading adolescents to lifelong literacy. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Allen s book offers an inspiring account of her attempt to enfranchise struggling secondary readers and writers. It focuses on building a literate classroom environment and provides concrete strategies to engage students in the composing process. Atwell, N. (1998). In the middle: New understandings about writing, reading and learning. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. This book has been a bible of sorts for teachers interested in implementing Reading and Writing Workshop in the classroom but it also includes numerous mini-lessons that can be integrated into a more teacher-guided instructional approach. In this second edition, Atwell addresses the pivotal role the teacher can play as a senior member in a community of learners to guide students in the literate behaviors of experienced readers and writers. Claggett, F. (1996). A measure of success: From assignment to assessment in English language arts. Linking theory and practice, Claggett considers the role of assessment in curriculum and instruction and provides specific rubrics for assessing individual reading and writing performances as well as for assessing growth over time in a portfolio. Daniels, H. (1994). Literature circles: Voice and choice in the student-centered classroom. York, ME: Stenhouse.
A Selected Annotated Bibliography 349 Designed for teachers who wish to facilitate collaborative student-led discussions about works of literature, this book provides specific strategies, including role sheets, for initiating and managing literature circles. Flower, L., & Hayes, J. R. (1980). The dynamics of composing: Making plans and juggling constraints. In L. W. Gregg & E. R. Steinberg (Eds.), Cognitive processes in writing (p. 31-50). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. This article analyzes the constraints writers must simultaneously juggle during the act of composing and considers the role of planning in reducing cognitive strain. Flower, L., & Hayes, J. R. (1981). A cognitive process theory of writing. College Composition and Communication, 32, 365-387. Based upon protocol analysis research to study the acts of mind writers engage in when they compose, Flower and Hayes propose that the process of writing is best understood as a set of thinking processes, including planning, translating and reviewing, which are under the control of a monitor. They liken cognitive processes to a writer s tool kit which the writer can access unconstrained by the need to use the tools in any fixed order. Hillocks, G. J. (1995). Teaching writing as a reflective practice. New York: Teachers College Press. Hillocks argues that effective teachers of writing continually reflect on their practice and plan and design instruction based upon their integration of theory with knowledge gained through practical experience. Like Langer and Applebee, he discusses the learning theories of Vygotsky and considers how teachers can design gateway activities to allow students to stretch intellectually and move from teacher-guided instruction to independent learning. Lane, B. (1993). After THE END: Teaching and learning creative revision. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
A Selected Annotated Bibliography 350 A favorite of many Writing Project teachers, this book discusses revision as the ongoing creative development of author s craft rather than what students redo or tack on after they have reached THE END. In his own unique, witty style, Lane teaches how to grow leads, create snapshots and thoughtshouts, explode a moment and shrink a century, and implement other revising techniques that are especially accessible to student learners. Langer, J. A., & Applebee, A. N. (1986). Reading and writing instruction: Toward a theory of teaching and learning. In E. Rothkopf (Ed.), Review of research in education (vol. 13, pp. 171-197.) Washington, D. C.: American Educational Research Association. In this important article, Langer and Applebee describe the theoretical underpinnings of their instructional scaffolding model and, based upon their research, describe five components of effective reading and writing instruction: ownership, appropriateness, structure, collaboration, and internalization. Langer, J. A. (1989). The process of understanding literature. (Report No. 2.1). Albany, NY: Center for the Learning and Teaching of Literature. This article discusses the reading process as an interpretive act of sense-making and discusses how readers construct envisionments--personal text worlds--that evolve as the reader reads. Based on her research concerning how middle and high school students construct meaning, Langer describes four major stances in the process of understanding literature: being out and stepping into an envisionment; being in and moving through an envisionment; stepping back and rethinking what one knows; and stepping out and objectifying the experience. Noden, H. (1999). Image grammar: Using grammatical structures to teach writing. Portmouth, NH: Heinemann. This user friendly book helps students recognize, appreciate and develop author s craft. Using a painting metaphor, Noden demonstrates how to add stylistic brushstrokes to writing such as absolutes, adjectives out of order and participial phrases. Professional and student models show students how to read like a writer so they can begin to write like a writer. The book comes with an
A Selected Annotated Bibliography 351 interactive CD-ROM from which teachers can access lesson strategies and artistic images that students can write about. Paris, S.G., Lipson, M.Y., & Wixon, K.K. (1983). Becoming a strategic reader. Contemporary Educational Psychology 8, 2930316. This article explores the metacognitive knowledge students need in order to selfselect, monitor, and regulate their use of cognitive strategies. Students need declarative knowledge so that they know that experienced readers (and writers) access cognitive strategies, procedural knowledge so that they know how to implement a selected strategy, and conditional knowledge so they know when to apply strategies and why they are effective. Paris, S.G., Wasik, B.A., & Turner, J.C. (1991). The development of strategic readers. In R. Barr, M.L. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, & P.D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 2. pp. 609-640). New York: Longman. This article explores the characteristics of expert readers, focusing on the cognitive strategies used to construct meaning before, during and after reading. It also considers the role of affect in strategic reading including tactics students use to avoid reading strategically and classroom conditions which motivate students to try harder. Tierney, R.J., & Pearson, P.D. (1983). Toward a composing model of reading. Language Arts 60, 569-580. This impressive article argues that reading and writing are essentially similar acts of meaning construction because both are acts of composing. It then proceeds to describe the aspects of the composing process that are parallel in reading and writing: planning, drafting, aligning, revising and monitoring. Tierney, R.J., Soter, A., O Flahavan, J.O., & McGinley, W. (1984). The effects of reading and writing upon thinking critically. Reading Research Quarterly, 24, 134-173.
A Selected Annotated Bibliography 352 Tierney et al describe a research study designed to explore whether writing in combination with reading prompts more critical thinking than reading alone, writing alone, or either activity combined with answering questions or some other knowledge activation activity. They conclude that, when taught together, reading and writing engage students in a greater use and variety of cognitive strategies than when reading and writing are taught separately. Tierney, R.J., & Shanahan, J. (1991). Research on the reading-writing relationship: Interactions, transactions and outcomes. In R. Barr, M. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, & P.D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 2, pp. 609-640). This article summarizes the research and theory of the reading-writing relationship and strongly suggests that teachers intentionally and strategically teach reading and writing together to enhance students thinking and learning. Tompkins, G.E. (1997). Literacy for the 21 st century: A balanced approach. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall. Although this book is geared toward K-8 teachers, it provides a wealth of information for high school teachers as well. Tompkins makes an impressive and comprehensive case for the reading/writing connection, focusing on the cognitive strategies that underlie these parallel processes of meaning construction. Wilhelm, J. (1997). You gotta BE the book: Teaching engaged and reflective reading with adolescents. New York: Teachers College Press. In order to reach the struggling readers in his eighth grade classroom and invest them in the world of books, Wilhelm studied what highly engaged adolescent readers do when they read and then designed and implemented activities to
A Selected Annotated Bibliography 353 make these strategies visible to his students. His analysis of the ten dimensions of response that his students engaged in as they entered, experienced and responded to text-worlds is especially insightful.