DOMAIN I. STUDENT DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING COMPETENCY 1.0 UNDERSTAND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT, FACTORS THAT AFFECT DEVELOPMENT, AND HOW TO APPLY THIS UNDERSTANDING TO PROMOTE STUDENT LEARNING. Skill 1.1 Demonstrates knowledge of major concepts and theories of human development (e.g., intellectual, linguistic, social, emotional, moral, physical) The teacher has a broad knowledge and thorough understanding of the development that typically occurs during the students current period of life. More importantly, the teacher understands how children learn best during each period of development. The most important premise of child development is that all domains of development (physical, social, and academic) are integrated. Development in each dimension is influenced by the other dimensions. Moreover, today s educator must also have knowledge of exceptionalities and how these exceptionalities affect all domains of a child s development. Human development is multi-faceted. One of the most interesting misconceptions of human development is that it stops at a certain age. Psychologists, medical researchers, sociologists, linguists, and educators are finding that, indeed, development continues throughout the human life-span. Development is generally divided into a variety of categories, each of which are explained below: Physical Development Physical development refers to the physical growth of the child. This tends to be the most obvious, as we can see it clearly in all children. It is important to remember that children develop at different rates. No two children are the same in their physical development. In fact, this could be said of all areas of development. That is the exciting and amazing thing about human nature! The teacher must be aware of the physical stages of development, and how physical growth and development affect the child s learning. Factors determined by the physical stage of development include: ability to sit and attend, the need for activity, the relationship between physical skills and self-esteem, and the degree to which physical involvement in an activity (as opposed to being able to understand an abstract concept) affects learning.
Cognitive (Academic) Development Intellectual development is thought of in a variety of capacities; however, the most significant theories of intellectual development come from Jean Piaget, a European scientist who died in the late 20 th Century. He developed many theories about the way humans learn, most famously a theory about the stages of the development of human minds. The first stage is the sensory-motor stage that lasts until a child is in the toddler years. In this stage, children begin to understand their senses. In the next stage, or pre-operational stage, children begin to understand symbols. For example, as they learn language, they begin to realize that words are symbols of thoughts, actions, items, and other elements in the world. This stage lasts into early elementary school. The third stage is called the concrete operations stage and lasts until late elementary school. In this stage, children go one step beyond learning what a symbol is and learn how to manipulate symbols, objects, and other elements. A common example of this stage is the displacement of water. In this stage, they can reason that a wide and short cup of water poured into a tall and thin cup of water is actually the same amount of water. The final stage is called the formal operations stage. It usually starts in adolescence or early teen years and continues into adulthood. This stage allows critical thinking, hypothesis, systematic organization of knowledge, and other advanced thinking skills. Social Development Social development skills take place between the child and other humans, whether other children or adults. Babies are born without an understanding of others; however, over time, that understanding develops. Young children begin to learn that other people can be competition or support. Later in life, children develop concepts of friendship, and they begin to realize that some people represent enemies, as well. Social development continues through adolescence, as children begin to differentiate themselves with others around them. In doing so, social development seemingly takes an inward turn as children develop understandings about who they are and what they stand for. In actuality, though, they are positioning themselves as unique individuals in a social world.
Children progress through a variety of social stages, beginning with an awareness of peers without a concern for their presence. Young children engage in parallel activities playing alongside their peers without directly interacting. During the primary years, children develop an intense interest in peers. They establish productive, positive, social, and working relationships with one another. This stage of social growth continues to increase in importance throughout the child s intermediate, middle school, and high school years. The teacher must recognize the importance of developing positive peer group relationships and provide opportunities and support for cooperative small group projects that not only develop cognitive ability, but promote peer interaction. The ability to work and relate effectively with peers is of major importance and contributes greatly to the child s sense of competence. In order to develop this sense of competence, children need to be successful in acquiring the knowledge and skills recognized by our culture as important, especially those skills which promote academic achievement. Emotional Development Emotional and moral development take place as children begin to understand the impacts of the world around them and their place in the world. Children develop emotionally, for example, by realizing through social development that there are better ways to deal with friends, enemies, and jealousy than by throwing tantrums. Children develop morally at first by understanding black and white issues, such as X is wrong, while Y is right. Later, through a combination of either rules, religion, and role models, children piece together perceptions of why certain things are right and wrong and how to negotiate personal actions with either moral or rule-based beliefs and understandings. Linguistic Development Linguistic development allows communication through speech, which comprises both speaking and listening. Linguistic development also assists in the development of reading and writing. Children, in infancy, communicate through cries and later guttural sounds. Later they assign words to particular objects, realizing that (a) words signify objects and (b) sounds they hear from others are those signifying labels. Of course, very young children are not able to pronounce (or comprehend) most words, and, therefore, children uniquely develop the words they use. As a child grows, more and more words and grammatical structures are internalized, and speech becomes more automatic, fluid, and emblematic of the true language. As children progress into adolescence and beyond, linguistic development includes more advanced understandings and appreciations for metaphors and other figures of speech.
Skill 1.2 Demonstrates knowledge of ways in which development in any one domain (e.g., cognitive, linguistic, social, affective, moral, artistic, physical) may affect development in other domains Elementary age children face many changes during their early school years, and these changes may positively and/or negatively impact how learning occurs. Some cognitive developments (i.e., learning to read) may broaden their areas of interest as students realize the amount of information (i.e., novels, magazines, non-fiction books) that is available. On the other hand, a young student s limited comprehension may inhibit some of his or her confidence (emotional) or conflict with values taught at home (moral). Joke telling (linguistic) becomes popular with children age six or seven, and children may use this newly discovered talent to gain friends or social stature in their class (social). Learning within one domain often spills over into other areas for young students. Likewise, learning continues to affect all domains as a child grows. Adolescence is a complex stage of life. While many people joke about the awkwardness of adolescence, it is particularly important to remember that this stage of life is the stage just before adulthood. While people do indeed develop further in adulthood, the changes are not as quick or significant as in adolescence. When we say that development takes place within domains, we mean simply the different aspects of human change that take place. They include physical changes (e.g., body growth, sexuality); cognitive changes (e.g., better ability to reason); linguistic changes (e.g., a child s vocabulary develops further); social changes (e.g., figuring out identity); emotional changes (e.g., the ability to be concerned about other people); and moral changes (e.g., testing limits). Importantly, during adolescent development within each of these domains is not exclusive. For example, physical and emotional development are tied intricately, particularly when one feels awkward about his or her body; or when emotional feelings are tied to sexuality; or when one feels that he or she does not look old enough (as rates of growth are obviously different). Moral and cognitive development often goes hand in hand when an adolescent reasons behavior or searches for role models. What do educators need to know about this? Well, first, it is important to be sensitive to changes in adolescents. In addition to a change in one area, there may also be bigger changes in another area, hidden beneath the surface. Speaking of which, it is also extremely important is to realize that adolescents may be deeply hurt over certain issues that may or may not be directly related to the changes they are going through. It is particularly important for educators to be on the lookout for signs of depression, drug use, and other damaging activities, behaviors, or symptoms.
Skill 1.3 Recognizes the wide range of developmental variation among students at a given age or grade level and identifies instructional practices that are responsive to developmental variation among students Knowledge of age-appropriate expectations is fundamental to the teacher s positive relationship with students and effective instructional strategies. Equally important is the knowledge of what is individually appropriate for the specific children in a classroom. Developmentally oriented teachers approach classroom groups and individual students with respect for their emerging capabilities. Developmentalists recognize that kids grow in common patterns, but at different rates, which usually cannot be accelerated by adult pressure or input. Developmentally oriented teachers know that variance in the school performance of different children often results from differences in their general growth. With the establishment of inclusion classes throughout the schools, teachers must know the characteristics of students exceptionalities and their implications for learning. The effective teacher selects learning activities based on specific learning objectives. Ideally, teachers should not plan activities that fail to augment the specific objectives of the lesson. Objective driven learning activities serve as a tool to reinforce the teacher s lesson presentation. Additionally, selected learning objectives should align with state and district educational goals that focus on National educational goals (Goals 2000) and the specific strengths and weaknesses of individual students assigned to the teacher s class. The effective teacher knows students individual learning styles and human growth and development theory. To identify and implement appropriate learning activities, effective teachers select instructional activities consistent with principles of human growth and development theory. Learning activities selected for younger students (below age eight) should focus on highly simplified forms within short time frames. The nature of the activity and the content in which it is presented affects the approach students will take in processing the information. Younger children tend to process information at a slower rate than children age eight and older.
On the other hand, when selecting and implementing learning activities for older children, teachers should focus on more complex ideas and activities to match the greater capabilities of older students. Moreover, effective teachers maintain a clear understanding of the developmental appropriateness of activities selected for providing educational instructions to students, and they select and present these activities in a manner consistent with the level of readiness of their students. Skill 1.4 Recognizes characteristics and behaviors of students that are indicative of intellectual, linguistic, social, emotional, moral, and physical development As children develop in the various domains, as listed in Skill 1.1, they will exhibit different behaviors and characteristics that can signal that developmental change is taking place. This can be important for parents, educators, clergy, and other role models, particularly because changes require different responses from adults. Additionally, many changes can be emotional, physically disruptive, or confusing to children. Let s take, for example, the idea of physical development. Adolescents, as we all know, go through significant physical changes. While we typically poke fun at the awkwardness of adolescent physical change, it impacts adolescents in myriad ways beyond the physical element. Certainly physical changes, especially growth, cause pain, soreness, and very often clumsiness. But emotional changes, usually caused by a combination of physical, intellectual, moral, social, and emotional development, at least cause significant confusion, but may even cause emotional trauma. Adults charged with caring for children should observe warning signs at all stages and in all categories of development. Warning signs might include sudden changes of emotion, appearance, or physical stamina, just to name a few. Why would it be important for teachers, parents, and other role-models to be concerned about these developmental changes? When children go through changes, they need the careful guidance of adults in order to understand the impact of changes and the acceptable ways with which to deal with them. If teachers and parents realize that young children change behavior dramatically with each new stage, they can encourage proper behavior and promote further positive development.
Skill 1.5 Identifies developmentally appropriate instructional strategies, approaches, and learning opportunities for students No two students are alike. It follows, then, that no students learn alike. Applying a one dimensional instructional approach and a strict, tunnel vision perspective of testing imposes learning limits on students. All students have an equal right to an education, but there is no singular path to that education. A teacher must acknowledge the variety of learning styles and abilities among students within a class (and, indeed, the varieties from class to class) and apply multiple instructional and assessment processes to ensure that every child has appropriate opportunities to master the subject matter, demonstrate such mastery, and improve and enhance learning skills with each lesson. Traditionally teachers primarily used direct instruction in the classroom. The amount of time devoted to it will vary according to the age of the students, as well as other factors, such as the subject. Lecturing can be very valuable because it transfers knowledge quickly to students while they also learn note-taking and information-organizing skills. However, there are many drawbacks to lecturing to students of any age. The attention span, even of senior high-school students, is short when they are using only one sense hearing. Teachers should limit how much lecture they do as compared to other methods and how long the lectures last. Most teachers find students enjoy the learning process when lecturing is limited and the students participate actively and are responsible for their own learning. Students attitudes and perceptions about learning are the most powerful factors influencing academic focus and success. When instructional objectives center on students interests and are relevant to their lives, effective learning occurs. Learners must believe that tasks have value and that they have the ability and resources to perform them. If students think a task is unimportant, they will not put much effort into it. If a students think they lack the ability or resources to successfully complete a task, even attempting the task becomes too great a risk. Not only must teachers understand the students abilities and interests, they must also help students develop positive attitudes and perceptions about tasks and learning. Following are a few examples of instructional styles that actively involve students.
Differentiated Instruction The effective teacher will seek to connect all students to the subject matter through multiple techniques, with the goal that each student, through his or her own abilities, will relate to one or more techniques and excel in the learning process. Differentiated instruction encompasses several areas: Content: What is the teacher going to teach? Or, perhaps better put, what does the teacher want students to learn? Differentiating content means that students will have access to content that piques their interest about a topic, with a complexity that provides an appropriate challenge to their intellectual development. Process: A classroom management technique where instructional organization and delivery is maximized for the diverse student group. These techniques should include dynamic, flexible grouping activities, where instruction and learning occurs both as whole-class, teacher-led activities, as well as peer learning and teaching (while teacher observes and coaches) within small groups or pairs. Product: The expectations and requirements placed on students to demonstrate their knowledge or understanding. The type of product expected from each student should reflect each student s own capabilities. SEE also Skill 9.2 and Skill 1.7 Alternative Assessments Alternative assessment is an assessment where students create an answer or a response to a question or task, as opposed to traditional, inflexible assessments where students choose a prepared response from among a selection of responses, such as matching, multiple-choice, or true/false. When implemented effectively, alternative assessment exhibits these characteristics, among others: Requires higher-order thinking and problem-solving Provides opportunities for student self-reflection and self-assessment Uses real world applications to connect students to the subject Provides opportunities for students to learn and examine subjects on their own, as well as to collaborate with peers. Encourages students to continue learning beyond the requirements of the assignment Defines objective and performance goals clearly
Teachers are learning the value of giving assignments that meet the individual abilities and needs of students. After instruction, discussion, questioning, and practice are provided, rather than assigning one task to all students teachers ask students to generate tasks to show what they have learned. Students are given choices and thereby can demonstrate more effectively the skills, concepts, or topics they have learned. Student choice increases student originality, intrinsic motivation, and higher mental processes. Skill 1.6 Recognizes how factors in the home and community (e.g., family expectations and involvement; cultural, linguistic, and socioeconomic background; availability of community resources; community issues) may affect student development and readiness to learn Students often absorb the culture and social environment around them without deciphering contextual meaning of the experiences. When provided with a diversity of cultural contexts, students can adapt and incorporate multiple meanings from cultural cues vastly different from their own socioeconomic backgrounds. Socio-cultural factors have a definitive impact on a students psychological, emotional, affective, and physiological development, along with students academic learning and future opportunities. Most students have a complicated and complex experience with a variety of interlocking meanings and inferences. Altering one aspect of the complexity affects other aspects, which may impact how a student or teacher views an instructional or learning experience. Today s diverse school communities make understanding, interpreting, and synthesizing the nuances from the various cultural lineages challenging and can cause communication and learning blockages that could learning for students. Teachers must create personalized learning communities where every student is a valued member and contributor. Classrooms that incorporate the socio-cultural attributes of the student population into the fabric of the learning process create dynamic interrelationships that enhance the learning experience and personalize learning. When teachers provide students with numerous academic and social opportunities to share cultural and incorporate it into the learning, everyone in the classroom benefits. Everyone bonds through shared experiences and grows by having an expanded world view.
Research continue to show that personalized learning environments increase learning for students, decrease drop-out rates among marginalized students, and decrease unproductive student behavior that can result from constant cultural misunderstandings or miscues among students. Promoting diversity of learning and cultural competency in the classroom creates a world of multicultural opportunities and learning for students and teachers. When students can step outside their comfort zone and share the world of a homeless student or empathize with an immigrant English Language Learner (ELL) who is struggling to keep up with academic learning, then students grow exponentially in social understanding and cultural connectedness. Readiness The concept of readiness is generally regarded as a developmentally based phenomenon. Various abilities, whether cognitive, affective, or psychomotor, are dependent on the development or mastery of certain prerequisite skills or abilities. Readiness, then, implies that students must have the necessary prior knowledge, experience, and readiness prerequisites before engaging in the new task. However, each grade level has readiness expectations and assumptions based on the previous year s instruction. Students who have not yet mastered those concepts are not ready to progress. Failure on the part of the teacher to address student deficiencies may lead to failure of the student to learn new material. Readiness for subject area learning is dependent not only on prior knowledge, but also on affective factors such as interest, motivation, and attitude. These factors are often more influential on student learning than the pre-existing cognitive base. It should be noted, then, that a concept such as readiness to learn is too broad to be meaningful. Readiness needs to be considered in terms of readiness to learn science or, even more accurately, readiness to learn photosynthesis. Since the classroom teacher cannot assess each student s readiness for each lesson, mastery of one lesson is generally assumed to imply readiness for the next sequential lesson.