Western paradigms on learning theories: Behaviorism Cognitivism Constructivism Design-Based Humanism Ref: http://www.learning-theories.com/
DAVID KOLB
Of all the models of experiential learning that have been developed, Kolb's has probably been the most influential in prompting theoretical work among researchers of adult learning (Jarvis, 1987). David Kolb (1984) proposed The Experiential Learning Cycle. 4
Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience (Kolb, 1984: 38). The theory presents a cyclical model of learning: concrete experience (or DO ) reflective observation (or OBSERVE ) abstract conceptualization (or THINK ) active experimentation (or PLAN ) 5
Four learning styles: assimilators, who learn better when presented with sound logical theories to consider convergers, who learn better when provided with practical applications of concepts and theories accommodators, who learn better when provided with hands-on experiences divergers, who learn better when allowed to observe and collect a wide range of information Reference: http://www.learningtheories.com/experiential-learning-kolb.html 6
MALCOLM KNOWLES
Five assumptions on the adult learner: 1.Self-Concept: As a person matures, he or she moves from dependency to self- directness. 2.Experience: Adults draw upon their experiences to aid their learning. 3.Readiness: The learning readiness of adults is closely related to the assumption of new social roles. 8
4. Orientation: As a person learns new knowledge, he or she wants to apply it immediately in problem solving. 5. Motivation (Later added): As a person matures, he or she receives their motivation to learn from internal factors. 9
Malcolm Knowles is a pioneer of the art and science of andragogy, adult learning and it can be summarized as follows: Changes in self-concept; adults more independent. Experience; more mature individuals have a certain experience that can serve as an important resource in learning. 10
Adults are more willing (ready) to learn on a problem that seem relevant to them (readiness). Learning more self-centered to a student (orientation). Adults are more motivated to learn, especially to lesson that has a significant influence on his own (motivation). 11
Andragogy, means "the art and science of helping adults learn" (Knowles, 1980). The term andragogy was originally formulated by a German teacher, Alexander Kapp, in 1833 (Nottingham Andragogy Group, 1983). 12
Andr is meaning 'man'. Paid is meaning 'child. Agogos is meaning 'leading. Roget's defines pedagogy as "The act, process, or art of imparting knowledge and skill." The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language defines pedagogy as "The art or profession of teaching." 13
Andragogy is associated with mature-aged learners whereas pedagogy is associated with younger, leass mature learners (Kember, Jenkins & Ng, 2003) A comparison of the assumptions of pedagogy and andragogy following Knowles (Jarvis, 1985); http://www.infed.org/lifelonglearning/bandra.htm 14
Quoted from Stephen Pew (2007: 14) http://www.insightjournal.net/volume2/andragogy%20and%20pedagogy%20as%20foundational%20theory%20for %20Student%20Motivation%20in%20Higher%20Education.pdf: Maintaining this dichotomy of educational existence and balancing the competing demands for teacher attention is often a challenge for university educators, but one worth pursuing. Understanding the andragogical or pedagogical foundations of adult-to- adult learning in an environment of higher education can help meet this challenge, in that adult-to-adult interactions are more facilitative of adult learning than are parent-tochild interactions (Tyrell & Johnston, 1983). 15
Adult learning principles described by Knowles (1984) as follows: 1. Adults should be involved in planning and evaluation instructions. 2. Experience (including mistakes) provides the basis for learning activities. 3. Adults are most interested in learning subjects that have immediate relevance to their job or personal life. 4. Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content oriented. 16
Therefore, adult learners should be engaged in (Swee-Choo, P.G. & Matthews, B, 2010: 289): An act of challenge. Critical reflection. Sharing. Support. Risk taking. 17
Jarvis (1995), however, see the contributions of Knowles is not a theory but as a form of adult learning philosophies and concepts are very important. Knowles did not establish a proven theory, rather he introduced a "set of well-grounded principles of good practice" (Brookfield, 1986, p. 98) Example of theory: Piaget's theory of cognitive development. 18
CROSS
K.P. Cross (1981) presents the Characteristics of Adults as Learners (CAL) model, which attempts to integrate other theoretical frameworks for adult learning such as andragogy ( Knowles ), experiential learning ( Rogers ), and lifespan psychology. Ref: http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/adultlearning.html. 20
CAL model consists of two variables: personal characteristics and situational characteristics. Personal characteristics: aging, life phases, and developmental stages (e.g., marriage, job changes, retirement). Situational characteristics: part-time versus full-time learning, and voluntary versus compulsory learning. 21
HOWARD MCCLUSKY
In 1960s, Howard Y. McClusky proposed Theory of Margin - Power-Load-Margin as a formula expressing a ratio or relationship between the "load" (of living) and the "power" (to carry the load): M = L/P ( Best between 0.5 and 0.8) 23
McClusky (1970: 27): Load is "the self and social demands required by a person to maintain a minimal level of autonomy... [Power is] the resources, i.e. [sic] abilities, possessions, position, allies, etc. [sic], which a person can command in coping with load [sic]. Ref: http://wwwdistance.syr.edu/margin.html 24
Load Factors: External -- tasks of life such as family, career, socioeconomic status Internal -- self-concept, goals, personal expectations Power Factors: Physical -- strength, stamina, energy, health Social -- ability to relate to others Mental -- ability to think, reason Economic -- money, position, influence Skills -- what the individual knows how to do 25
Learning in adulthood is function of changing: Roles and responsibilities. Physical and mental development. Sometime, learning can happen under condition of stress; L is greater than P (overloaded). Ref: Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner (2007). 26
KNUD ILLERIS
Knud Illeris (2003) defines three different processes of learning: cognitive process, emotional process, and social process. Cognition: Both knowledge and motor learning, which are controlled by central nervous system. Emotion: Psychological energy, transmitted by feelings, emotions, attitudes and motivations which both mobilize and at the same time, are conditions that may be influenced and developed through learning. 28
... I see it (the process of learning) as an entity which unites a cognitive, an emotional and a social dimension into one whole. It combines a direct or mediated interaction between the individual and its material and social environment with an internal psychological process of acquisition. Thus, learning always includes both an individual and a social element, the latter always reflecting current societal conditions, so that the learning result has the character of an individual phenomenon which is always socially and societally marked. (Illeris, 2003: 227) 29
PETER JARVIS
Jarvis (1987): All learning begins with experience. He created a famous model out of four elements: concrete experience observation and reflection the formation of abstract concepts testing in new situations. He made it into a cycle that can start at any one of the four points and be approached as a continuous spiral. 31
Experiences are affected by psychological history. Model includes a person experimenting on the environment and thinking about and monitoring ones practice as it happens. 32
Opening by situating experiential learning as a part of one s life world: culture, space and time. Culture is learned through experience; is seen in sub-sets of primary socialization (family; involving value system), secondary socialization (sub-group), brainwashing and indoctrination and, cultural and social capital. 33
HOWARD GARDNER
Howard Gardner represents those theorists who have dismissed the idea of one type of intelligence as typically measured by today s psychometric instruments. He posited that there were seven (later eight) types of intelligences (Gardner, 1993). 35
1. Linguistic intelligence 2. Logical-mathematical intelligence 3. Spatial intelligence or the ability to form a mental model of the spatial world and to maneuver within it using this model. 4. Musical intelligence. 5. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, or the ability to solve problems using one s body as performed by athletes, dancers and other craftspeople. 6. Interpersonal intelligence or the ability to understand other people. 7. Intrapersonal intelligence or the ability to understand one s self. 36
Garner (1993) maintains that the first two are the types of intelligence commonly measured by IQ tests, and which are commonly accepted as intelligence. He later added an eighth intelligence to his taxonomy, Naturalist Intelligence, which he defined as expertise in the recognition and classification of the numerous species -- the flora and fauna -- of his or her environment (Gardner, 1999, p. 48) 37