A Study of the Effects of School, Class and Students` Characteristics on Mathematics Performance and Attitude Toward Schooling: An Empirical Evidence for The Educational Effectiveness Model Fariba Khoshbakht 1 & Morteza Latifian 2 Abstract: The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of school, class and students` characteristics on math performance and attitude toward schooling. Based on Creemers` model (1994), this study attempted to test a causal model for the educational effectiveness. The sample consisted of 1241 fifth grade elementary school students (521 girls and 720 boys) that were selected by the stratified random sampling method. Several measuring instruments were used. The validities and the reliabilities all instruments were confirmed. The results revealed a good fitness between the proposed model and the observed data. Also the results suggested that the proposed model in this study was a good model for extending the educational effectiveness model in different areas of education. Keywords: Educational effectiveness, Quality of teaching, Creemers` model. 1-Introduction Many important concepts and variables should be considered in the educational studies. Educational effectiveness is one of them. During the last two decades, research in educational effectiveness has grown rapidly in many countries (Teddlie & Reynolds, 2000; Kyriakides, 2005; Kyriakides & Tsangaridou, 2008; Maeyer & et al, 2010). Stringfield (1994) defines educational effectiveness as the process of differentiating existing ideas and methods along dimensions deemed to be of value. Educational effectiveness focuses on understanding the lessons to be drawn from existing practices and it is not attempt to invent new ideas or programs (Creemer, 2005). 1 -Assistant Prof. of Educational Psychology,Department of Foundations of Education Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran 2 -Associate Prof. of Educational Psychology, Department of Educational Psychology, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
Kyriakides (2005 & 2006) accurately summarizes different approaches to educational effectiveness modeling into three basic categories: The economic approach is the first category. In these categorical models, the general aim is to study the relationship between supply of selected purchased schooling inputs and educational outcomes, controlling the effects of various background features, "With increasing inputs, outputs increase too". This is the basic assumption of the education/ production models. The second category is the educational / psychological approach to educational effectiveness modeling. This approach is similar to the economic approach, but it has different antecedent conditions. Time, content covered, quality of instruction, learning aptitudes, personality and motivation are included in this second approach. Third category is the generalist-educationalist approach. Creemers (1994) expands the previous models by including curricular materials, grouping procedures, and teacher behavior in the quality of instruction. Creemers clearly explains how differences among performances of educational systems occur, according to different proposed conditions. Creemers claims that the influence of educational system on outcomes is at multilevel forms: context, school, class and student. The studies such as Creemers` research form an Integrated Multilevel Educational Effectiveness model, while schools are nested in contexts, classrooms are nested in schools, and students are nested in classrooms or teachers. These models attempt to integrate the findings of School Effectiveness Research (SER), Teacher Effectiveness Research (TER) and the early input-output studies. Several studies worked on educational effectiveness scope (Kyriakides & Campbell, 2003; Reynolds, et al., 1994; Maeyer, et al., 2010; Reynolds & Teddlie, 2000; Teddlie & Reynolds, 2000; Reynolds & Muijs, 1999) and some of them tested Creemers` model (such as, Young, et al., 2004, Driessen & Sleegers, 2000, and Kyriakides et al., 2000).
The present study, based on Creemers` model, was conducted through a causal model. This study was carried out for three reasons: First, the educational effectiveness models are not tested in Iran, so this study is the first one in this respect. Second, Kyriakides (2005) mentions the need for study including variables at the student level of the Creemers` model, specially with respect to psychological aspects of students. Third, Creemers and Kyriakides (2006), based on Cook & Campbell s study (1979), imply the essential of conducting a research " in order to enhance the validity of causal inferences in non-experimental research by providing a basis for assessing the direction of causation between two variables and by enabling some control over selection effects". So, the present study, based on Creemers model, and in order to address the above assumptions and reasons, proposed a causal model to investigate. In this model, variables related to the student level are included, which are an expansion of the original model of Creemers. Based on Pintrich and De Groot (1990) study, self regulated learning is an important variable in student learning studies. They mention self regulated learning includes: 1- students' meta-cognitive strategies for planning, monitoring, and modifying their cognition, 2- Students' management and control of their effort on classroom academic tasks, and 3- cognitive strategies that students use to learn, remember, and understand the material such as rehearsal, elaboration, and organizational strategies. They identified two categories of variables for self regulated learning. a) Motivation components include intrinsic value, Self-efficacy and test anxiety. And b) Self-regulated learning components include strategy use and self-regulation strategy.
So, in the present study, motivational components (intrinsic value, self-efficacy and test anxiety) and self-regulated learning components (strategy use and selfregulation strategy) are added at the students` level of Creemers` model. Also math performance and attitude toward schooling were both academic output in the model. The final causal research model, based on Creemers` model including self regulated learning variables, is showed in the figure 1. The aim of this study was to investigate this model. School effectiveness elements classroom effectiveness elements -Quality of instruction Quality of rules -Time spent teaching - Opportunity to learn Motivational beliefs Self-regulated learning outcomes -Self efficacy -Strategy use -Math performance -Intrinsic value -Self-regulated -Attitude toward School climate elements assroom climate elements Strategies schooling -Interaction of principal -Interaction of teacher -Test anxiety and teachers and students -Principal` expectation -teacher`s expectation - physical school - physical classroom environment environment Figure 1: The research path model
In this model the including factors are: 1) school effectiveness and school climate factors, 2) classroom effectiveness factors and classroom climate factors, 3) motivational beliefs, 4) self regulated learning strategies, and 5) mathematics performance and attitude toward schooling. Factors are respectively introduced as exogenous, the first one, second, third and fourth as mediators, and fifth as endogenous variables. Intelligence and socio-economic status of the sample were controlled in this study. 2-Method Participants The sample consisted of 1241 fifth grade elementary school students (521 girls and 720 boys) that were selected by the stratified random sampling method from 32 schools. In Iran educational system has three levels: 1) elementary school (five years), 2) guidance (secondary) school (three years) and 3) high school (four years). Instruments The measuring instruments were School Rules Scale( Kyriakides et al, 2000), Organizational Climate Description for Elementary School(Hoy et al, 1991), Principal Expectancy Scale (Bulach, 2001), Physical Environment of School Scale, Quality of Teaching Scale ( Kyriakides et al, 2000), Time and Opportunity of Learning Form, Questionnaire on Teacher Interaction (Wubbels et al, 1993), Teacher Expectancy Scale, Physical Environment of Classroom Scale (Bulach, 2001), Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (Pintrich & De Groot, 1990), Researcher made Mathematics Achievement Test, Attitude toward Schooling Scale, Otis Mental Ability Test and Inventory of Prestige of Occupation. The validities and reliabilities of all these instruments were confirmed by content analysis and Cronbach`s alpha.
3-Results In order to investigate whether independent variables (school variables) correlate with dependent variable (students` performance) through the influence of mediators variables (class variables and students` self regulated learning variables), a path analysis was conducted. Path analysis is a method in which a causal theory and statistical technique of multiple regression combine to assess direct and indirect influences between the variables of interest (Ho, 2006). Therefore in present research, the path analysis was used for testing two models with two difference dependent variables: math performance and attitude toward schooling. Figure 2 presents the path model with the estimated regression coefficients (Beta values) associated with the hypothesized paths. The analysis showed the classroom effectiveness and classroom climate factors, motivational beliefs, and self regulated learning strategies had a mediator role in the model. Classroom effectiveness and classroom climate factors were predicted by school effectiveness and climate factors. Also there was a relationship between classroom effectiveness and climate factors with motivational beliefs. Self regulated learning strategies were predicted by motivational beliefs. Finally mathematics performance had a significant relationship with Self regulated learning strategies. Attitude toward schooling was predicted by motivational beliefs. The supportive behavior of principal had a direct effect on mathematics performance. Quality of teaching showed a direct effect on students` attitude toward schooling. In all of analysis intelligence and SES variables were controlled. The final model is showed in figure 2.
Quality of rules -.10.21 Quality of teaching.16 Cognitive/motivati Principles` flexibility.12 -.12.16 Learning time -.10 onal beliefs -.14 Learning opportunity.14.54 -.24 Principles` support -.13 -.18 Teachers` support.10 Self regulated strategies.18 Math performance Principles` orienting.23.22 Teacher s` orienting.12 -.09.10 Principles` expectation.22 -.11 Uncertain teacher.10 Test anxiety -.10 Attitude toward schooling Physical school environment.29.61 teachers` expectation Physical classroom -.16 -.10 environment.12.12 Figure 2: Standardized regression coefficients for the path model Predicting math performance and attitude toward schooling
4- Discussion and Conclusion Based on Creemers` model, this study tested a causal model with exogenous variables (school effectiveness and school climate factors) first, second, third and fourth as mediators (respectively classroom effectiveness factors and class climate factors, motivational beliefs, self regulated learning strategies), and fifth as endogenous variables (mathematics performance and attitude toward schooling), while intelligence and SES were controlling variables. In general, the analysis of data showed that variables at the school level significantly predicted variables at the classroom level. Factors in classroom level significantly predict motivational beliefs. Self regulated learning strategies significantly were predicted by motivational beliefs. Math performance was predicted by Self regulated learning strategy. Attitude toward schooling was predicted by motivational beliefs. In other words, this study showed that the causal structure of Creemers` model could be extended by self regulated learning variables. The role of the three variables in this model is discussed below: 1- Time and opportunity. Time and opportunity did not have significant role in this study. Although they were predicted by school level variables, but did not have any effects on other variables. The possible explanation for this finding can be for the principals to control time and opportunity. In Iran teachers are evaluated by their principal and the result of this assessment became a base for the teachers` ranking quality. Teachers spend more time on assigning classroom tasks for children because of their ranking criterion, but not on students` learning. 2- Physical environment. The analysis of data revealed that when the schools are clean, well arranged and safe, the teachers showed higher quality of teaching, lower control and more supportive. In these schools,
students` cognitive/motivational beliefs were stronger and their anxiety was lower. They used more cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies and finally they got higher math score and attitude toward schooling. An alternate explanation could be related to the environmental psychology theories which state that people s behaviors are the result of the interaction between person and his/her physical environment. Especially in the present model, physical environment has a direct effect on student motivation. Therefore, with increasing quality of physical environment, students` motivation will increase. 3- Quality of teaching. The results showed that except physical environment, others exogenous variables didn t have any effects on quality of teaching. In other words, the interaction of principals and teachers as well as principals` expectations had direct effects on time and opportunity and didn t have effect on teaching quality. On the other hand, quality of teaching had a direct effect on motivational beliefs and test anxiety. This variable didn t have any direct effects on math score or attitude toward schooling. This means quality of teaching, had an effect on endogenous variables via students motivation. This result is a supportive finding for Creemers` model mentioning that "classroom variables indirectly effects on students` performance via students` motivation". Finally, the results support the hierarchical structure of Creemers` model. It means school variables influence on classroom variable, classroom variables effect on student variables. And the finding suggested that the proposed model in this study was a good model for extending the educational effectiveness models.
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