Overview of qualitative research: Theory to practice Qualitative Research Seminars 5 July Seton Hall J.F. Strydom University of the Witwatersrand
Overview INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1 - The Nature of Qualitative Inquiry Class activity What to you think about EdD? CHAPTER 2 - Strategic Themes in Qualitative Inquiry (p. 1-36) (p. 37-74) CHAPTER 3 - Variety in Qualitative Inquiry: Theoretical Orientations (p. 75-142) CHAPTER 4 - Particularly Appropriate Qualitative Applications (p.143-205) Strydom, 2005 2
Introduction Teaching and learning approach experiential learning That means I want you to get your hands dirty Activities in class and in the reader Discuss the following question with the person next to you? What does the concept qualitative research mean to you? Resources: Executive Ed.D reader Chapter from Miles & Huberman (will be handed out) Internet references in reader Strydom, 2005 3
CHAPTER 1 - The Nature of Qualitative Inquiry (p. 1-36) What does qualitative data look like? Interviews, Observations & Documents Qualitative Findings: Themes, Patterns, Concepts, Insights, Understandings (p.5 in Patton) Identification of patterns in small & large samples Sometimes this involves critical reflection on the relationship with participants Being in; being-for and being-with Findings are often simple yet insightful in character Strydom, 2005 4
CHAPTER 1 - The Nature of Qualitative Inquiry (p. 1-36) Different Purposes of and Audiences for Qualitative Studies Research, Evaluation, Dissertations, and Personal Inquiry Activity 1: What is the difference between.. (selfevaluation) You cannot judge the appropriateness of the methods in any study or the quality of the resulting findings without knowing the purpose, agreed-on uses, and intended audiences All inquiry designs are affected by intended purpose and targeted audience, but purpose and audience deserve special emphasis in the case of qualitative studies. Strydom, 2005 5
CHAPTER 1 - The Nature of Qualitative Inquiry (p. 1-36) Methods Choices: Contrasting Qualitative and Quantitative Emphases (p.12 in Patton) Not everything that can be counted counts, and not everything that counts can be counted. - Einstein Making Methods Decisions Some Guiding Questions and Options for Methods Decisions What are the purposes of the inquiry? Who are the primary audiences for the findings? What questions will guide the inquiry? What data will answer or illuminate the inquiry questions? What resources are available to support the inquiry? What criteria will be used to judge the quality of the findings? Activity 2: Define face validity and credibility? (self-evaluation) Strydom, 2005 6
CHAPTER 1 - The Nature of Qualitative Inquiry (p. 1-36) TASK OF THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCHER NB To provide a framework within which people can respond in a way that represents accurately and thoroughly their points of view of the world or a specific programme. The Purpose of Open-Ended Responses To enable the researcher to understand and capture the points of view of other people without predetermining those points of view through prior selection of questionnaire categories The Raw Data of Qualitative Inquiry Pure description & quotations are the raw data of qualitative enquiry Description is meant to take the reader into the setting Strydom, 2005 7
CHAPTER 1 - The Nature of Qualitative Inquiry (p. 1-36) People-Oriented Inquiry Lofland s mandates for collecting qualitative data Get close enough to the people and situation being studied to personally understand in depth the details of what goes on. Aim to capture what actually takes place and what people actually say: the perceived facts. Include a great deal of pure description of people, activities, interactions and settings. Must include direct quotations from people, both what they speak and what they write. NB Read the Between-Chapters Interlude: Top Ten Pieces of Advice to a Graduate Student Considering a Qualitative Dissertation Strydom, 2005 8
Class activity What do you think about Ed.D? Answer the following questions 1. Rate your experience of the Ed.D program on the following scale: Very dissatisfied 1 2 3 4 5 Very satisfied 2. Describe your experience of the Ed.D program? Strydom, 2005 9
CHAPTER 2 - Strategic Themes in Qualitative Inquiry (p. 37-74) The Purpose of a Strategic Framework Provides a framework for decision making and action and integrates separate efforts (tasks & activities) into a common purpose. Design Strategies for Qualitative Inquiry (p.39 in Patton) NB - Ex 2.1 Themes of Qualitative Inquiry (p.40-41) Design strategies Naturalistic inquiry Studying real-world situation as they unfold naturally Emergent Design Flexibility Openness to adapting inquiry as understanding deepens and/or situations change Purposeful Sampling Cases for study are selected because they are information rich and illustrative Strydom, 2005 10
CHAPTER 2 - Strategic Themes in Qualitative Inquiry (p. 37-74) Data Collection and Fieldwork: Strategies for Qualitative Inquiry (p.47 in Patton) Qualitative Data Observations that yield detailed, thick description; inquiry in depth; interviews that capture direct quotations Direct Personal Experience and Engagement where the researcher has direct contact with and gets close to the people, situation, and phenomenon. Empathic Neutrality An empathic stance in interviewing seeks vicarious understanding without judgment (neutrality) by showing openness, sensitivity, respect awareness, and responsiveness; in observation it means being fully present (mindfulness). Trustworthiness, authenticity and balance characterise high quality qualitative data. Strydom, 2005 11
CHAPTER 2 - Strategic Themes in Qualitative Inquiry (p. 37-74) Data Collection and Fieldwork: Strategies for Qualitative Inquiry (p.47 in Patton) Empathy and Insight Ability to take and understand the stance, position, feelings, experiences, and worldview of others. A Dynamic, Developmental Perspective Attention to process; assumes change as ongoing Analysis Strategies for Qualitative Inquiry (p.55 in Patton) Unique Case Orientation Assumes each case is special and unique Inductive Analysis and Creative Synthesis Immersion in the details and specifics of the data to discover important patterns, themes, and interrelationships. Strydom, 2005 12
CHAPTER 2 - Strategic Themes in Qualitative Inquiry (p. 37-74) Analysis Strategies for Qualitative Inquiry (p.55 in Patton) Holistic Perspective The whole phenomenon under study is understood as a complex system that is more than the sum of its parts. Context Sensitivity Places findings in a social, historical and temporal context Voice and Perspective: Reflexivity The qualitative analyst owns and is reflective about her or his own voice and perspective; a credible voice conveys authenticity and trustworthiness; complete objectivity, the researcher s focus becomes balance-understanding and depicting the world authentically in all its complexity while being self-analytical, politically aware, and reflexive in consciousness. Strydom, 2005 13
CHAPTER 2 - Strategic Themes in Qualitative Inquiry (p. 37-74) From Strategic Ideals to Practical Choices NB Actually conducting holistic-inductive analysis and implementing naturalistic inquiry are always a matter of degree Beyond Competing Inquiry Paradigms Pragmatism Allows one to eschew methodological orthodoxy in favour of methodological appropriateness as the primary criterion for judging methodological quality, recognizing that different methods are appropriate for different situations. Strydom, 2005 14
CHAPTER 3 - Variety in Qualitative Inquiry: Theoretical Orientations (p. 75-142) NB Each theoretical perspective emerged from a particular context to address specific concerns at that time Consider the following 6 questions that will help you to differentiate between different frameworks: What do we believe about the nature of reality? How do we know what we know? How should we study the world? What is worth knowing? What questions should we ask? How do we personally engage in inquiry? Strydom, 2005 15
CHAPTER 3 - Variety in Qualitative Inquiry: Theoretical Orientations (p. 75-142) Theoretical traditions and orientations (p.81 in Patton) Ethonography Disciplinary root: Anthropology Central question: What is the culture of this group of people? Autoethonography Disciplinary root: Literary arts Central question: How does my own experience of this culture connect with and offer insights about this culture, situation, event, and/or way of life? You use your own experiences to garner insights into the larger culture or subculture of which you are a part. Strydom, 2005 16
CHAPTER 3 - Variety in Qualitative Inquiry: Theoretical Orientations (p. 75-142) Reality testing: Positivist and realist approaches Disciplinary root: Philosophy, social sciences & evaluation Central question: What s really going on in the real world? What can we establish with some degree of certainty? Etc. Premise- There is a real world with verifiable patterns that can be observed and predicted that reality exists and truth is worth striving for. Constructionism/constructivism Disciplinary root: Sociology Central question: How have people in this setting constructed reality? What are their reported perceptions, truths, explanations, beliefs and worldviews? Study of the multiple realities constructed by people and the implication of those constructions for their lives and interactions with others. Strydom, 2005 17
CHAPTER 3 - Variety in Qualitative Inquiry: Theoretical Orientations (p. 75-142) Phenomenology Disciplinary root: Philosophy Central question: What is the meaning, structure, and essence of the lived experience of this phenomenon for this person or group of people? Phenomenology asks for the very nature of a phenomenon, for that which makes a some- thing what it is without which it could not be what it is. Heuristic inquiry Disciplinary root: Humanistic psychology Central question: What is my experience of this phenomenon and the essential experience of others who also experience this phenomenon intensely? Focuses on the intense human experiences, intense from the point of view of the investigator. German alternative tradition provides more structure Strydom, 2005 18
CHAPTER 3 - Variety in Qualitative Inquiry: Theoretical Orientations (p. 75-142) Ethonomethodology Disciplinary root: Sociology Central question: How do people make sense of their everyday activities so as to behave in socially acceptable ways? Study of norms, understandings and assumptions that are taken for granted by people in a setting because they are so deeply understood that people don t even think about why they do what they do. Symbolic interaction Disciplinary root: Social psychology Central question: What common set of symbols and understandings has emerged to give meaning to people s interactions? People create shared meanings through their interactions, and those meanings become their reality. Strydom, 2005 19
CHAPTER 3 - Variety in Qualitative Inquiry: Theoretical Orientations (p. 75-142) Hermeneutics Disciplinary root: Linguistics, philosophy, literary criticism, theology Central question: What are the conditions under which a human act took place or a product was produced that makes it possible to interpret its meanings? Theoretical framework for interpretive understanding, or meaning, with special attention to context and original purpose. Narratology/ narrative analysis Disciplinary root: Social sciences (interpretive): literary criticism and nonfiction Central question: What does this narrative or story reveal about the person and world from which it came? Stories and narratives offer especially translucent windows into cultural and social meanings. Strydom, 2005 20
CHAPTER 3 - Variety in Qualitative Inquiry: Theoretical Orientations (p. 75-142) Ecological psychology Disciplinary root: Ecology, psychology Central question: How do individuals attempts to accomplish their goals through specific behaviours in specific environments? Understand the person s concerns within the context of his or her life world-the person s personal, family, community and ecological stories. Systems theory Disciplinary root: Interdisciplinary Central question: How and why does this system as a whole function as it does? Holistic thinking is central to this approach Strydom, 2005 21
CHAPTER 3 - Variety in Qualitative Inquiry: Theoretical Orientations (p. 75-142) Chaos theory: Nonlinear dynamics Disciplinary root: Theoretical physics, natural sciences Central question: What is the underlying order, if any, of disorderly phenomenon? Provide the comfort and courage to describe nonlinear dynamics (chaos) when we find it, without imposing false order to fulfil the presumed traditional purpose of analysis. Grounded theory Disciplinary root: Social sciences, methodology Central question: What theory emerges from systematic comparative analysis and is grounded in fieldwork so as to explain what has been and is observed? Focuses on the process of generating theory rather than a particular theoretical content emphasis is on inductive strategies of theory development. Strydom, 2005 22
CHAPTER 3 - Variety in Qualitative Inquiry: Theoretical Orientations (p. 75-142) Orientational: Feminist inquiry, critical theory, queer theory, among others Disciplinary root: Ideologies: Political, cultural & economic Central question: How is X perspective manifest in this phenomenon? Begins with an explicit theoretical or ideological perspective that determines what conceptual framework will direct fieldwork and the interpretation of findings. NB What is required is that the researcher is very clear about the theoretical framework being used and the implications of that perspective on study focus, data collection, fieldwork and analysis. Strydom, 2005 23
CHAPTER 3 - Variety in Qualitative Inquiry: Theoretical Orientations (p. 75-142) Pragmatism (p.135 in Patton) In real-world practice, methods can be separate from their epistemology out of which they have emerged The methods of qualitative enquiry stand on their own as reasonable ways to find out what is happening in programs and other human settings. Activity 3: Which of these theoretical frameworks appeal to you? Why? (homework!) Strydom, 2005 24
CHAPTER 4 - Particularly Appropriate Qualitative Applications (p.143-205) Studies focusing on quality Understanding and illuminating quality Understanding what people value and the meanings they attach to experiences, from their own personal and cultural perspectives. Quality assurance Quality has to do with nuance, with detail, and with the subtle and unique things that make a difference between the points on a standardised scale. Strydom, 2005 25
CHAPTER 4 - Particularly Appropriate Qualitative Applications (p.143-205) Evaluation Applications (p.151 in Patton) Outcomes evaluation Judging the effectiveness of programme entails an understanding of the stories behind the numbers to help improve the programme. Evaluating individualized outcomes Flexibility, adaptability, and individualization can be important to the effectiveness of educational and human service programmes. Process studies Looking at how something happens rather than or in addition to examining outputs and outcomes. Implementation evaluation Focus on learning the extent to which the programme was actually implemented to find out if a programme is operating according to its design. Logic models and theories of action Depicts, graphically, the connections between program inputs, activities and processes (implementation), outputs, immediate outcomes, along-term impacts. Logic models are descriptive Theory of change and theory of action models are explanatory and predictive Strydom, 2005 26
CHAPTER 4 - Particularly Appropriate Qualitative Applications (p.143-205) Evaluability assessments Conducted through interviews, document analysis, and observations to determine whether a program is sufficiently well conceptualised and consistently implemented to undertake a formal summative evaluation to determine its overall functioning. Comparing programmes: Focus on diversity Qualitative descriptions permit documentation of deeper and unanticipated program differences, idiosyncrasies and uniquenesses. Prevention evaluation Understanding prevention includes understanding what people think and do as a results of prevention efforts. Documenting development over time and investigating system changes Strydom, 2005 27
CHAPTER 4 - Particularly Appropriate Qualitative Applications (p.143-205) Evaluation models (p.169 in Patton) Models provide frameworks rather than recipes that offer evaluators with support Goal-free evaluation Doing fieldwork and gathering data on a broad array of actual effects or outcomes, then comparing the observed outcomes with the actual needs of program participants. Transaction models: Responsive and illuminative evaluation Responsive places particular emphasis on the importance of personalizing and humanizing the evaluation process Illuminative are used to study innovative programmes Assumptions the importance of understanding people and programs in context, a commitment to study naturally occurring phenomena without introducing external controls or manipulation, and the assumption that understanding emerges from and inductive analysis of transactions between a program and its participants. Strydom, 2005 28
CHAPTER 4 - Particularly Appropriate Qualitative Applications (p.143-205) Connoisseurship studies Places the evaluator s perceptions and expertise at the center of evaluation process qualitative research is an artistic critic of the phenomena studied. Utilization-focused evaluation Evaluative process, strategy and framework for making decisions about the content, focus and methods of an evaluation. Interactive and participatory applications (p.175 in Patton) Practical and pragmatic forms of inquiry in which the research is especially sensitive for the perspectives of others and interacts closely with them in designing and implementing the study. Personalizing and humanizing evaluation Harmonizing programme and evaluation values Strydom, 2005 29
CHAPTER 4 - Particularly Appropriate Qualitative Applications (p.143-205) Interactive and participatory applications (p.175 in Patton) Developmental applications: Action research, action learning, reflective practice and learning organisations Qualitative inquiry as practiced through the lenses of action learning and reflective practice can be one of the foundation of a learning organisation. Appreciative inquiry Popular organisational development approach that emphasizes building on an organisation s assets rather than focusing on problems or even problem solving. Participatory research and evaluation: Valuing and facilitating collaboration Bottom-up approach involving working with people as coinvestigators. Strydom, 2005 30
CHAPTER 4 - Particularly Appropriate Qualitative Applications (p.143-205) Interactive and participatory applications (p.175 in Patton) Supporting democratic dialogue and deliberation Supports democracy inclusion, dialogue and deliberation focus is on reinforcing the use of evaluation to help people learn to think and reason evaluatively. Supporting democracy through process use: Helping the citizenry weigh evidence and think evaluatively. Special applications Unobtrusive measures Less obtrusive nature can reduce or even eliminate distortions State-of-the-art considerations: Lack of proven quantitative instrumentation Example evaluating creativity Confirmatory and elucidating research: Adding depth, detail, and meaning to quantitative analyses Strydom, 2005 31
CHAPTER 4 - Particularly Appropriate Qualitative Applications (p.143-205) Interactive and participatory applications (p.175 in Patton) Special applications Rapid reconnaissance Qualitative research enables quick field work to assess quickly developing situations in a rapid world. Capturing and communicating stories Legislative monitoring and auditing Becomes the eyes and ears of the legislature or board Futuring applications: Anticipatory research and prospective policy analysis Qualitative methods can be used to collect data to plan future scenarios. Breaking the routine: Generating new insights Strydom, 2005 32