Contents 1. The education system at the end of the 20th century: an overview... 3 Introduction... 3 Briefly on the status of Norwegian education at the turn of the century... 4 A note on pre-primary education... 4 Primary and lower secondary education... 5 Upper secondary education and training... 6 Adult education and training... 7 Higher education... 8 1.1 Major reforms and innovations in the 1990s... 9 a) The legal framework of education... 10 A common Act relating to primary and secondary education as from 1999... 10 Acts on adult education and training... 11 Acts on higher education... 11 b) The organisation, structure and management of the education system... 12 Primary and secondary education... 12 Higher education... 14 c) Evaluation policies, methods and instruments... 15 Primary, secondary and adult education and training... 15 Higher education... 16 d) Objectives and principal characteristics of current and forthcoming reforms... 17 The reform of primary and lower secondary education ('Reform 97')... 17 The reform of upper secondary education and training ('Reform 94')... 18 The Competence Reform of adult education and training... 19 The reform of higher education... 20 1.2 Major achievements... 21 a) Access to education... 21 Special Needs Education / Inclusive education... 22 Language minorities... 24 b) Gender equity in education... 25 c) Quality and relevance of education... 27 d) Participation by society in the process of educational change... 28 Cooperation between home and school... 28 Cooperation between vocational life and the school community... 29 1.3 Lessons learned... 30 A note on the role of information and communication in periods of reform... 31 1.4 Main problems and challenges... 31 Challenges related to primary and secondary education and training... 31 Challenges related to adult education and in-service training... 33 Challenges related to higher education... 34 Towards an inclusive education system... 35 2. Educational content and learning strategies for the twenty-first century... 38 2.1 Curriculum development, principles and assumptions... 38 a) The decision-making process... 38 b) Curriculum planning and design... 38 c) Assessment policies and instruments used to determine a pupil s progress... 41 Evaluation at institutional and individual level... 41 Timetables, duration of teaching periods and the school year... 42 2.2. Changing and adapting educational content... 44 a) Factors motivating curriculum reforms... 44 1
b) Participating institutions and organisms... 46 Training of school principals and other school leaders... 46 c) Introduction of new disciplines, revision of content and priority topics... 47 Internationalisation and globalisation... 47 The promotion of values in education... 49 Content and values in a multicultural society... 49 d) Strategies adopted in the design, implementation, follow-up and evaluation of curriculum reforms... 50 Some examples of current development work related to content and learning environment... 50 e) Achievements, problems and solutions... 51 Documentary references... 52 Legal and official documents... 52 Publications by the Ministry of Education, Research and Church Affairs... 53 Internet addresses... 54 2
1. THE EDUCATION SYSTEM AT THE END OF THE 20TH CENTURY: AN OVERVIEW Introduction During the 1990s, education increasingly became a priority area of Norwegian political debate. It has been generally and nationally recognised that education is a key to economic, social and cultural development. Furthermore, at the dawn of the 21 st century education is seen as essential for greater cohesion, solidarity and international understanding in a world of religious, social and political tension. The Norwegian Government's vision of society encompasses a nation of tolerance and mutual respect, a society free of discrimination, where citizens master the art of living together, and where everyone may feel included and safe independent of cultural origin, political conviction or religious belief. Knowledge, skills and capacity can make a better life possible. The Government also has a vision of Norway as an advanced society, a knowledge society ranking among the best in the world, and a society able to make knowledge and competence available to all citizens, as well as to utilise the resources of all citizens. The basic principles and priorities of Norwegian education policies today are a high general level of education in the entire population equal opportunity for all in access to education decentralisation of educational administration meeting long-term and short-term qualification requirements of the labour market emphasis on a broad and general initial education, leaving specialisation to later stages and further training at work lifelong learning (based on a cradle to grave definition) a comprehensive education system with easy transition between levels and courses. The above-mentioned priorities cannot be reached without high-quality education and training available to all. Education for all is a basic precept of Norwegian education policy. The principle of equality in terms of educational provision has long traditions in Norway. During the last ten years of the 20 th century, the overall aim of the Government has been to ensure equal rights to education for all independent of gender and social, geographical and cultural background. 3
Norwegian education policy is also based on the belief that people's ability to receive and to be motivated for new knowledge to a large extent depends on the quality of educational provision, focussing on the content and quality of education. The guiding principle for the 1990s has been to improve educational standards for the whole population by means of sector-wide improvement and consolidation of the system. Compared to most other countries of the world, Norway is indeed in a favourable position as regards education. The public education system, the network of nongovernmental organisations and other providers of education constitute a broad range of educational opportunities also for adults. Large resources are invested yearly by both the private and public sectors in in-service capacity building. There is a broad political consensus that the qualifications, skills and competencies of the population are essential prerequisites for economic development and further development of the welfare society. High and widespread competence is also a means to prevent unemployment. Briefly on the status of Norwegian education at the turn of the century Facts about Norwegian Education and Training 590,000 pupils in compulsory education 164,000 pupils in upper secondary education 174,000 students in higher education Approx. 1 million adults in various full time or evening courses Approx. 85,000 teachers in compulsory education Approx. 23,000 teachers in upper secondary education 11,300 academic staff (full time equivalents) Facts about Norway: 4.3 mill people 324,000 km 2 14 inhabitants per km 2 19 counties 435 municipalities The Norwegian education budget equals 6.9 per cent of the gross domestic product (GDP) in the year 1998. The average for countries with membership in the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) is 5.7 per cent (1998). The educational level of the population has risen considerably in recent years. 85 per cent of people aged 25 to 64 have upper secondary education or higher. 94 per cent of people between 25 and 34 years of age have upper secondary education or more. A note on pre-primary education In Norway early childhood or day-care institutions are the responsibility of the Ministry of Children and Family Affairs and participation is voluntary. The institutions are run by the local municipality or on a private basis. Some key data are given below. Although not being part of the formal education system, day-care institutions serve a dual function: they provide care during parents' working hours while at the same time contributing to the education of children of pre-school age. 4
In 2000, approx. 51 per cent of all children in Norway between the age of 0 to 5 attended early childhood institutions. The coverage, low for the youngest children, increases with the age and reaches 81 per cent for 5-year olds. The demand for early childhood institutions is relatively low for children less than a year old. The main reason is that employed women in Norway have a legal right to ten months maternal leave with 100 per cent salary. The cash support arrangement implemented in 1999 has somewhat decreased the demand for early childhood institutions as regards children between 1 and 3 years of age. Early childhood or day care institutions cater for children from birth to five and are feepaying. The national level of coverage in early childhood institutions was approx. 51 per cent in 2000. A substantial amount of kindergartens are run on a private basis with public support. As an alternative to income-generating work, parents of children 1-3 years of age may choose to receive cash support from the State. administration of municipal and private institutions. The Day Care Institution Act instructs the Ministry to lay down a framework plan for the operation of day-care institutions. A national Framework Plan was implemented in 1996. This plan states the fundamental principles, objectives, contents and activities of these institutions, as well as giving guidelines for the organisation and Primary and lower secondary education Compulsory schooling in Norway is of ten years' duration, and children start school at the age of six. Compulsory education is free and net enrolment is close to 100 per cent. The responsible administrative unit is the local municipality. The number of primary and lower secondary schools in Norway is 3,260. The schools are situated in 435 municipalities. 38 per cent of Norwegian primary and lower secondary schools practice multi-grade teaching (i.e. teaching children of different ages in the same classroom). In 1999, about 1.6 per cent of pupils attended private schools. The teacher-pupil ratio in Norway is as high as 12.6 students per teacher, partly due to the many small schools.. The number of pupils in compulsory education (grades 1 to 10) was 580,000 in 1999. Since 1997 the three main stages in compulsory education are: Lower primary stage (grades 1 to 4) Upper primary stage (grades 5 to7) Lower secondary stage (grades 8 to 10) As a result of Norway's scattered population, close to 40 per cent of primary and lower secondary schools are so small that children of different ages are taught in the same classroom 5
(multi-grade teaching). Also, 59 per cent of lower secondary schools are combined with primary schools. Primary and lower secondary education in Norway is founded on the principle of a unified or comprehensive school system that provides equal and adapted education for all on the basis of one single national curriculum. All young people are to share a common framework of knowledge, culture and values. Compared with other countries, Norway has few private schools and no specific private school tradition. In 1999 only about 1.6 per cent of the pupils at compulsory school level attended private schools. The percentage is increasing slightly at the turn of the century. Private schools are primarily considered as supplementary and not supposed to compete with public instruction. According to the Act schools can be approved on condition that they are: established on religious or ethical grounds: based on alternative pedagogical ideas; established for Norwegian children abroad; considered to fulfil a quantitative need; providing vocationally orientated education which is not offered in the public system. Private schools recognised by the State are given state support of 85 per cent of the running costs of equivalent public schools. Upper secondary education and training Upper secondary education normally covers the 16-19 age group (11th to 13th grade) and includes general, academic studies as well as vocational and apprenticeship training. Since 1994, everyone between the ages of 16 and 19 has had a statutory right to three years of upper secondary education. Upper secondary education is offered at county (regional) level. Upper secondary The number of upper secondary schools in education embraces Norway is 512. all courses leading to Upper secondary education is provided throughout the 19 counties of Norway, designed to make equivalent educational courses available to all. In 1999, about 5.1 per cent of pupils at upper secondary school level attended private schools. The total number of students in Norwegian upper secondary education was 200,380 in 1999. The ratio of students to teaching staff in upper secondary schools is 9.9 students per teacher. educational qualifications above lower secondary level and below the level of higher education. In other words, upper secondary education in Norway may lead either to higher education, to vocational qualifications, or to partial qualifications. 6
General theoretical education and vocational training are offered side by side, often in the same school building. Pupils take one of 15 foundation courses during the first year. Specialised courses are offered in the second and third years (advanced courses I and II) and in apprenticeships after completing course 1. Apprenticeship schemes are parts of the upper secondary school system. After the implementation of the Competence reform (see Chapter 1.1 below) adults born after 1978 who have not completed upper secondary education, have the same legal right to such education as the 16 to 19 year-olds. The law obliges county authorities to provide a follow-up service for young people between 16 and 19 years of age who are currently neither attending a course of education nor employed. Adult education and training Educational opportunities for adults and lifelong learning are two basic tenets of Norwegian educational policy. The focus of adult education lies increasingly on the provision of courses aiming at paving the way for adults to learning relevant for vocational life and/or higher education. The aim of Norwegian adult education policy in the last decade of the 20 th century has been to raise the level of education of the entire adult population, to meet the labour market's needs for skills and competencies, and to satisfy the needs of individuals for professional, social and personal development. Adult learning is an important prerequisite for the participation in economic activity, and for promoting social, professional and personal enrichment. Of a population of 4.5 million, close to one million participate annually in some variety of adult education courses.. Adult education courses vary a great deal in content, range, level and extension, ranging from small evening courses to full time studies at tertiary level. The typical learner in Norwegian adult education today is between 30 and 49 years old; either a female taking a course in crafts and aesthetic subjects or health care, or a male taking a course in crafts or organisation and management. Furthermore, investment in human capital is essential to qualifying people for a constantly changing labour market, to improving the quality of life of individuals and to the strengthening of democratic participation. Adult learning has a long tradition in Norway. Today adult education takes place in many different 7
learning arenas: the public education system, regional resource centres, study associations, the so-called Folk High Schools 1, distant education institutions, and in other private institutions and enterprises. Higher education Higher education in Norway is mainly offered at state institutions, notably four universities, six specialised university institutions, 26 university colleges and two national institutes of the arts, adding up to a total of 38 state institutions. There are as many as 26 private higher education institutions with recognised study programmes, compared to the 38 state institutions. Nevertheless, the overwhelming majority of students attended the state institutions at the close of the century, i.e. 156,322 students or close to 90 per cent of the total of 173,961 registered students in 1999. Higher education in Norway offered by the State is tuition free. A financing system consisting of one part State grant (pt. 30 per cent) and one part State loan is designed to increase the social equity in access to higher education. The total number of students in the higher education sector in 1999 was approx. 174,000. Universities and colleges increasingly offer courses designed to meet the growing need for flexibility in distance and time as well as educational content, providing learning opportunities in higher education for new groups of the population. The universities and specialised university institutions are engaged in both teaching and research. They offer lower and higher degree courses varying from four to seven years and also doctoral programmes. Particular efforts are currently being made to encourage students to register for courses in mathematics, science and technology subjects. The aim of the 26 state university colleges is to make higher education more widely accessible while increasing the amount of academic expertise available to the different regions of Norway. The colleges thus make an important contribution to the decentralisation of higher education. Primarily they offer shorter courses of a more vocational orientation than those offered by the universities. In addition to teacher training and courses in engineering, health and social work and other courses of two to four years' duration, the colleges also offer undergraduate courses interchangeable with those offered by the universities. Entrance to higher education institutions is normally gained on the basis of upper secondary education. Admission can also be granted on the basis of 5 years of work experience or a combination education and work experience, in addition to 1 Folk High Schools are mainly boarding schools owned and operated by a diversity of groups and bodies, ranging from Christian organisations to local communities and private foundations. Folk High Schools focus especially on the holistic development of personality and character of students. The schools offer general courses to young people and adults. Though the courses do not aim at formal examinations, they are meriting for entrance into institutions of higher education. 8
minimum requirements in certain theoretical subjects. After the implementation of the Competence Reform (see chapter 1.1 below), admission can also be granted on the basis of non-formal/informal competence. A financing system consisting of one part State grant (30 per cent) and one part State loan (70 per cent) is designed to increase social equity in access to higher education. From 2002 the grant will be increased to approximately 40 per cent. 1.1 Major reforms and innovations in the 1990s Norwegian educational reforms in the 1990s included a reform of higher education in 1994 a reform of upper secondary education in 1994 ('Reform 94') a reform of compulsory education in 1997 ('Reform 97') a reform targeting the adult population in and outside the labour market in 1998 ('the Competence Reform'). The decade between 1990 and 2000 in Norway may be characterised as a period of reform encompassing the educational system as a whole, i.e. both structural reforms and reforms of the content of education from the primary stage to higher education. The main motivations for the comprehensive reforms implemented in the 1990s were the conviction that education will increasingly have to be considered in a lifelong learning perspective the need to re-structure the educational system in order to create a more integrated, better co-ordinated, flexible and unified system a need to review the content of education in order to enable the population to meet and master the major changes in society in adequate ways in terms of technology, vocation, flexibility, culture, values etc. Today, educational provision for children and young people is seen in the context of a coherent and continuous course of 13 school years. This has been made possible thanks both to the introduction of a common core curriculum for primary, secondary and adult education in 1993, and to the adoption of a common Education Act for primary and secondary education in 1998. Generally speaking, the reforms undertaken in Norway during the 1990s are based on a broad concept of knowledge, where ethical values and attitudes, theoretical and practical knowledge and the promotion of creativity, initiative, entrepreneurship, cooperation and social skills are all part of a whole. 9
a) The legal framework of education A common Act relating to primary and secondary education as from 1999 In 1998 the Norwegian Parliament adopted a new Act relating to primary and secondary education (the Education Act). This Act replaced a number of former educational Acts: the Act concerning primary and lower secondary education from 1969 (establishing 9 years of compulsory education), the Act concerning upper secondary education from 1974 establishing the principle of co-ordination of general upper secondary education and vocational training, as well as the statutory right to three years of upper secondary education for all young people, the Act concerning vocational training from 1980, and to some extent the Act on adult education from 1976. In 1995 it had became clear that both the time that had elapsed since these Acts were adopted, and the major reforms being undertaken, did necessitate a thorough revision of the current legislation, with a view to preparing a legal framework better adapted to the new situation. The Ministry therefore appointed a committee to submit a report assessing to what extent the existing acts were instrumental in achieving national goals of education in the 1990s. 10 years of compulsory education On the basis of recommendations presented by this Commission the Government in 1998 submitted a White Paper to the Parliament, proposing a common educational Act for primary and secondary education. The Act upholds the right and obligation to 10 years of primary and lower secondary education and the statutory right to 3 years of upper secondary education. According to the Education Act of 1999, disabled pupils and pupils with special needs are entitled to instruction offered in the compulsory school, and they are integrated into the ordinary 10-year compulsory school. The municipalities are responsible for the education and training (both at primary, lower and upper secondary level) of children, young people and adults with special needs. Disadvantaged pupils may get up to 5 years of upper secondary education. The Act lays down provisions relating to curriculum content, participation by pupils and parents, class size and mixed age groups, working environment and school premises, transport and lodging and a number of other topics. The Act normalises employment protection for teachers, while at the same time imposing requirements of police certificates and prohibiting the employment of persons found guilty of gross indecency. 10
The Act introduces an individual right to Saami tuition in primary and secondary education. Pursuant to the Act, the Saami Parliament is allowed greater influence on the content of Saami tuition and is also given the authority to decide parts of the content within a framework laid down by the Ministry. Similarly, the Act also introduces a statutory right to Finnish tuition if at least three pupils attending a primary and lower secondary school in the two northernmost counties require such tuition. Finally, the Act upholds and clarifies the responsibility of the State for supervision of primary and secondary education. Acts on adult education and training In 1976, Norway was the first country in the world to introduce a separate Act on Adult Education. The Act states that the aim of adult education is "... to contribute to giving adults equal access to knowledge, insight and skills which will promote individual growth and encourage personal development as well as strengthen the basis for independent achievement and co-operation with other people in work and community life." In 1999 those parts of the Act which applied to primary and secondary education for adults were included in the new Education Act. With reference to the current Competence Reform the Norwegian Parliament decided in June 2000 that adults in need of primary or secondary education be granted an individual and legal right to such education. The right to upper secondary education has already been put into force from autumn 2000, while the right to primary and lower secondary education will be implemented from August 2002. Moreover, the Parliament has also amended relevant paragraphs of the Act on universities and colleges of higher education from 1995. This amendment gave adults aged over 25 and without upper secondary education the possibility to commence studies at a university or a college, provided that their nonformal/informal learning is approved by the institutions in question. Finally, the Parliament in 2000 adopted an amendment to the Working Environment Act from 1977, giving employees an individual right to study leave as from January 2001. This right does not include any economic compensation. However, adults may now obtain study loans on better terms than hitherto. A commission appointed by the Government is currently considering economic compensation for adults with study leave from their place of work. Acts on higher education The legal basis for higher education was thoroughly revised at the beginning of the decade. In 1992, the Government set up a commission to propose a new law for all types of higher education. Based on the proposals put forward by the commission, the Government presented a Bill to the Parliament in 1994. Act no. 22 of 12 May 1995 on Universities and Colleges was put into effect as of 1996, and the 1989 Act on universities and 'university colleges' was superseded. 11
The new Act introduces a common legal basis both for the university and nonuniversity sector, including the 'higher education Network Norway', and provides a common framework for student regulation, as well as for the management and organisation of the institutions to which it applies. The Act has been amended twice, in 1997 (regarding the merger of some institutions) and in 2000 (regarding admission to higher education, cf. the Competence Reform described below). Private higher education is regulated by an Act of 11 June 1986 No 53 on the Recognition of Study Programmes at, and State (i.e. government) Funding of, Private Higher Education Institutions, a law administered by the Ministry of Education, Research and Church Affairs. Norwegian private higher education institutions are not automatically entitled to such support. In 2000, there were 20 private higher education institutions receiving state funding for (part of) their activities, and 6 institutions with recognised study programmes without such funding. All of these have to send budget proposals, and yearly accounts and reports on examination procedures, numbers of registered students, graduates, etc. to the Ministry. b) The organisation, structure and management of the education system Primary and secondary education Decentralisation of decision-making has been a general trend in Norwegian education since the late 1980s. The professional autonomy of educational institutions at all levels has gradually increased. A major step in the direction of decentralisation was made by the introduction of a new sector grant system in 1986, in which local and regional authorities receive a block grant covering all central government subsidies for school education and culture as well as the health service. As a consequence, the municipalities and counties now enjoy greater autonomy as regards educational provision. Counties (regional) and municipal (local) authorities determine their activities in accordance with current legislation and regulations. In addition, the Ministry emphasises the importance of placing responsibility for educational interpretation and local adaptation of curriculum and syllabi within the individual school. Standards and general frameworks of teaching are centrally determined by means of syllabuses stating objectives as well as national regulations for the conduct of examinations. Administrative levels Administratively, Norway is divided into 19 counties and 435 municipalities. These two administrative levels have the following responsibilities as regards education: The municipalities (local administration) are responsible for primary and lower secondary schools (10 years of compulsory education). The local authority responsible for education is the municipal council. The municipality is responsible for the fulfilment of each pupil s legal right to education, for the administrative 12
running of schools, for the building and maintenance of school buildings, and for appointing teachers. The counties (regional administration) are responsible for upper secondary education. Their responsibilities cover the running of schools, the intake of pupils and the appointment of teachers. The county is responsible for the fulfilment of each pupil s statutory right to upper secondary education and training, for the administrative running of schools, for the building and maintenance of school buildings and for the appointment of teachers. The State (The Ministry of Education, Research, and Church Affairs) has overall responsibility for higher education. With the introduction of a new Act on Universities and Colleges, applicable from 1 January 1996, the non-university sector (the State Colleges) has been given the same administrative responsibilities as the universities. A characteristic feature of the Norwegian education system until the early 1990s was a large number of advisory bodies concerned with specific types of education. Through a comprehensive revision of the education sector, the majority of these were dissolved in January 1992, with the exception of the Council for Vocational Training, the Saami Education Council and the National Parents' Committee. National support institutions A National Education Office was established in each county in 1992. The head of the office has the title of Director of Education. The main emphasis lies on consultation with each school and municipality, though the offices also have functions related to quality control. Maintaining and facilitating communication among national authorities, teachers' unions, parental associations, and pupils' associations is also the responsibility of the National Education Offices. In addition to the responsibilities common to all offices, the Ministry may choose to charge certain offices with special assignments. Their responsibilities have been extended to cover all levels of education, with the exception of higher education, where their responsibility is limited to that of co-ordinating higher education activities of relevance for the school sector, notably further education and in-service teacher training. Two new national bodies were established during the year 2000, in part to address new tasks within education sector, and partly to take over tasks from former national educational institutions. The Norwegian Board of Education, established with effect from September 2000, is a state institution with its own board of directors. The Board is a national centre for the education sector, replacing the former National Centre for Educational Resources and the National Examination Board. The new Board has also been assigned certain tasks, i.e. operative responsibility for curriculum development, educational research and development work, certain topics related to information and communication technology (ICT) in education, examinations in lower and upper secondary schools, and certain tasks related to information. 13
The Norwegian Institute for Adult Education (VOX), established with effect from January 2001, replaced three earlier institutions, i.e. the former Norwegian Institute of Adult Education, the Norwegian State Institution for Distance Education, and the State Adult Education Centre. The institute is assigned to initiate, coordinate and document research and development projects, to facilitate contact and collaboration among national actors, to establish networks for adult education, and to disseminate results. Ministry of Education, Research and Church Affairs National Board of Education National institute for Adult Education Network Norway Council (higher ed.) Norwegian Council of Higher Education National Education Offices (18) Universities and Colleges SOFF Counties (19) Upper secondary Education Municipalities (435) The Compulsory School Adult Education Figure 1: Administrative levels and bodies in Norwegian education (2001) Higher education The 1995 Universities and Colleges Act prescribes a common organisational and administrative structure for the institutions to which it applies. Under this Act, the universities and colleges are governed by a board and as a rule also by a council. In 1996, the Ministry issued a set of general rules concerning the elections of rector, pro-rector, board and council at universities and colleges (including provisions concerning the election of election committees). Elections of student representatives to the board and the council are done by ballot among all students to be represented. It is worth noting that students must have at least two representatives in all collegiate bodies that are given decision-making powers, unless the delegating body unanimously i.e. including student representatives decides otherwise. Student bodies are legally entitled to be heard on all questions relating to students at the level concerned. 14
National support institutions in higher education Network Norway was set up in 1994 to promote specialisation, cooperation and communication in order to reduce duplication between the higher education institutions. The Network Norway Council became operational in the beginning of 1998 as an advisory body to the Ministry, particularly concerning long-term crossinstitutional and national issues within higher education. Its activities are mainly related to the distribution of disciplines and study programmes between higher education institutions quality assessment in higher education the academic assessment of applications concerning the recognition of private higher education information about and recognition of higher education. The universities and the specialised institutions of higher education are represented in the Norwegian Council of Higher Education, created in 2000 from the former independent councils of the university sector on the one hand, and of the university colleges on the other. Its aim is to coordinate the activities of the member institutions, and to contribute to a national policy on higher education. A central body for open and distance learning at higher education level (SOFF) was established in 1990, with the main task to register and coordinate distance teaching offered by institutions of higher education. SOFF works to include different units in a national network and administers funds for research and development activities related to distance teaching and learning based on recommendations by the Ministry. c) Evaluation policies, methods and instruments Primary, secondary and adult education and training The reforms in the educational sector are intended to ensure high-quality education and promote coherence in children s and young people s learning and development. A continuing process of school assessment and teacher and management training accompanied the systemic and curricular reforms of primary and secondary education implemented in the period 1994 to 98. The reforms themselves have been subject to ongoing evaluation throughout the period of reform. The primary and lower secondary school reform (Reform 97) is under evaluation by the Research Council of Norway during the period 1998-2003. The reform must be considered in conjunction with the reforms within upper secondary education (Reform 94) and in higher education. In addition to a final report, annual summaries and analyses will be prepared. The evaluation will address legal, economic, administrative, subject content and educational aspects. 15
The reform of upper secondary education (Reform 94) was subject to researchbased analysis and evaluation from 1994 to 1998. The evaluation was designed to show to what extent the central aims of the reform were realised. The analysis provided information about and understanding of the ongoing processes in a form that made it possible to effect rapid adjustments and corrections with a view to better achieving the aims of the reform. The evaluation also formed the basis for a White Paper to the Parliament. The following four areas were assessed: scale and capacity pupil through-flow and levels of competence organisation and cooperation the content and structuring of educational programmes. There has also been considerable interest in how the reform affected marginal groups. Projects have been initiated related to ethnic minorities, to the statutory follow-up service, and to pupils and apprentices with special needs. Higher education The Network Norway Council carries out national evaluations and undertakes development work in the field of evaluation systems and methodology. The Ministry has instructed the Network Norway Council to develop guidelines and procedures for the institutions' internal quality assurance work. The Council summarises the results of evaluations and follows them up with the aim of making them contribute to the general assurance and enhancement of quality in higher education. The Council's mission also includes the tasks of developing the knowledge bank that has been built up on evaluations and evaluation methodology, and to maintain international contacts in this field. The Council's evaluations of higher education aim to: produce relevant information about the quality of higher education in Norway to support the institutions in their work to enhance the quality of higher education to analyse educational outcomes in relation to defined aims and invested resources to advise the Ministry in matters relating to the quality of higher education to attain the same levels of professionalism as corresponding activities in other countries. In all its evaluations, the Network Norway Council aims to ensure through standard procedures that the institutions under evaluation are involved at all important stages; i.e. in the process of formulating the mandate, in the general planning process and in the collection of data. The purpose of this is to ensure the relevance, quality and legitimacy of the process and thus the results of the evaluation. 16
Furthermore, higher education institutions have instructions to take systematic steps to assure and enhance the quality of their education, research and other dissemination of knowledge. An evaluation of the Competence Reform is currently being planned, and will be effected within one or two years. d) Objectives and principal characteristics of current and forthcoming reforms The reform of primary and lower secondary education ('Reform 97') During the last decade of the 20 th century, the overall principles of primary and lower secondary education in Norway may be summarised as follows: Education for all free public education, equal access to education, education adapted to individual needs. Integration mixed-ability teaching, with integration of pupils with special needs into the ordinary schools. Participation pupils should be encouraged to cooperate in school activities and to be active in the life of the local community; close links should be established between school and home and between school and local community. Decentralisation the local authorities are made responsible for compulsory education. Local curricula may be developed. From 1987 to 1997, teaching in compulsory education was based on Curriculum Guidelines drawn up by the Ministry of Education. This included learning to cooperate, taking responsibility, and having a say in the activities of the school: i.e. pupil participation and school democracy. In 1993 the Ministry decided to provide a common formulation of the Common Core of the Norwegian curriculum, with a view to emphasising how the stages of education were linked together. (See chapter 2.1.b for more information on the common Core Curriculum.) One flexible curriculum, with adaptations for certain minority groups The new national curriculum for primary and lower secondary education was implemented gradually as from 1997. In 1999 new subject syllabuses had been introduced in all grades, i.e. grades 1 to 10. A special Saami curriculum was prepared for Saami pupils, the indigenous group of people living mainly in the northern regions of Norway. In addition, Finnish was introduced as a second language in the northernmost counties. (See chapter 2.1.b for more information on the new national curriculum.) In accordance with the principle of integration and inclusion, all pupils in compulsory school in principle follow the same course of schooling, and work on the same subjects. There is no repeating of classes. The school is expected to adopt a variety of approaches in order to meet the needs of pupils with different 17
backgrounds, interests and abilities. The syllabi stress that pupils should be active, enterprising and independent. Pupils should learn by doing, exploring and experimenting. Hence, active working methods are an important part of the 1997 curriculum (L97). The reform of upper secondary education and training ('Reform 94') At the beginning of the 1990s, changes in society in general and within the educational sector in particular, called for reform of Norwegian upper secondary education. The private sector called for a workforce with a broader and more updated competence, especially in technological subjects. There was also a call for greater flexibility and a better foundation for advanced training and in-service competence building. The main elements of the reform launched for Norwegian upper secondary education and training in 1994 were a statutory right to upper secondary education for all adolescents aged 16 to 19 improved coordination between school, business and industry better recruitment to higher education from vocational training the introduction of a follow-up service in each county the reduction of the number of foundation courses and study areas. Upper secondary education provides the pupils with either - university entrance qualifications, (certificate of upper secondary education) - vocational qualifications (trade or journeyman s examination) - documented competence without certificate of upper secondary education or trade or journeyman s examination - or the acquisition of other vocational competence. The large majority of upper secondary schools in Norway offer both general studies and vocational training. Through the reform young people who seek craft or vocational qualifications are given the opportunity to achieve this in the school and/or at the workplace. 13 Foundation Courses, Advanced Course I and II An objective was to take into account the need for broad general knowledge, i.e. avoid too much specialisation. Before the reform there were more than one hundred Foundation Courses. In 1994, the number of such courses was reduced to 13 (see Chapter 1.3). Specialisation now takes place gradually, in Advanced Courses I and II. The main model for vocational training introduced by the reform consists of two initial years (Foundation Course and Advanced Course I) in the school and the final training (Advanced Course II) in business and industry, combined with productive work. 18
After 1994, pupils and apprentices who wish to obtain university entrance qualifications in addition to vocational competence, could take additional courses on completion of their technical or vocational training. If a sufficient number of apprenticeship places cannot be secured, the counties are obliged to provide specialisation in the form of a final year in upper secondary school. The final examination (craft or journeyman's examination) is the same, regardless of whether the final training has taken place at school or a workplace. After 'Reform 94', the counties are also under legal obligation to establish a follow-up service for young people with a statutory right to education, but who are neither in training nor employed, including those whose education is discontinued. Teaching methodology, advisory services and syllabi Upper secondary education has been made available over the entire country in order to ensure that all young people have the same opportunities for education and training at this level. Reform 94 places special demands on educational methodology for differentiation, and on advisory services in upper secondary schools. All groups receiving education based on the common core curriculum use one single set of syllabi. The syllabi are designed to facilitate teaching in modules. The adaptation of methods is the responsibility of the professional educator, assisted by the methodological teaching guides that accompany the syllabi. The Competence Reform of adult education and training Though Norway has a highly educated population compared to many other countries, research early in the 1990s gave rise to concern about the level of competence in knowledge based industries especially, and about the potential for flexibility and professional renewal among adults in a rapidly changing vocational landscape. In 1996, a Government committee was established to inquire into continuing education and training for adults. The committee s recommendations were included in a White Paper to the Parliament. The report was debated and passed in January 1999. An agreement between the Government and the social partners in connection with the wage settlement in 1999 is also an important basis for the reform. The reform has a long-term perspective and will be implemented as a process and in co-operation between the Government, the social partners and the various providers of education. The main elements of the Competence Reform is a statutory right to primary and secondary education for adults born after 1978 who did not complete upper secondary education; entrance to higher education for adults above 25 years of age, based on nonformal competence acknowledged by an institution of higher education. Legal rights to one year of study leave after two years of employment by the same employer. 19
The opportunity for adults to obtain documentation and recognition of nonformal/ informal learning at all levels of education. The Competence Reform affects formal education as well as non-formal and informal learning provided in organisations and in the workplace. The reform is based on a broad concept of knowledge, where values and attitudes, theoretical and practical knowledge and the promotion of creativity, entrepreneurship, cooperative ability and social skills are all part of a whole. The aim of the Reform is to embrace the whole adult population in and outside the labour market. It is focused on the needs of the workplace, society and the individual. Adults non-formal and informal learning will be assessed and validated upon entry into a regular programme in the public education system. Substantial effort is also being put into the provision of educational opportunities for groups of adults with particular challenges, e.g. adults with inadequate schooling, mental or physical disabilities, reading and writing difficulties or an inability to speak Norwegian. The reform of higher education At the end of the 1980s, a process was started that would reform the structure of higher education in Norway dramatically. It was decided to review various aspects of higher education. Three royal commissions were appointed to discuss inter alia the national structure and organisation of higher education and research. Based on reports from these commissions, the Government in 1991 presented a White Paper on higher education. Important proposals of the 1991 White Paper on higher education were the establishment of 'Network Norway' a reduction in the number of institutions by reorganising and merging existing colleges a strengthening of core school subjects in teacher education, without extending the study period the extension from ½ to 1 year of the study period in practical and didactic training required for future teachers graduating from universities an increased power of decision-making and responsibility to the operative units within the system of higher education, and development of better evaluation procedures stronger emphasis on internationalisation of higher education. In 1994, the 98 former regional and vocational colleges were reorganised and merged to form 26 university colleges. Later on, seven colleges and academies of arts, crafts and design were merged into two new fine arts institutions. The overall growth of the higher education sector in the 1990s has been remarkable. While in the 1980s about 25 per cent of a year's cohort took higher education, in the 1990s this had increased to about 40 per cent. From the autumn of 1988 to the autumn of 1999, the total number of students has increased from approximately 103,000 to approximately 174,000. Most of this increase came in 20
the period 1988 to 1995. Since then, the enrolment figures have stabilised or decreased slightly. It is worth noting that most of the increase in student numbers during recent decades has taken place within the non-university sector, and in 1995, approximately 50 per cent of the students in higher education institutions were attending a university college. Women were only admitted to university studies in 1884. In 1999, on the other hand, women constituted 61 per cent of all students, and 38 per cent of those obtaining a doctoral degree. Higher education reforms in progress In 1998, a Commission on Higher Education was appointed, and its report was submitted in May 2000. The main recommendations were related to autonomy governing structures funding formulas degree structures the institutional landscape accreditation internationalisation and globalisation. In March 2001, a White Paper was submitted to the Parliament on the basis of the report. The White Paper will be discussed in June. 1.2 Major achievements a) Access to education Equal opportunity for all in access to education is a basic precept of Norwegian educational policy. Wherever they live in the country, all citizens must have an equal right to education, independent of gender and regardless of social, geographical, cultural, religious and ethnic background. Another fundamental objective of the education policy is to make sure that children, adolescents and adults with special needs receive an appropriate and meaningful education, including individually adapted teaching, preferably in their home community. During the last decade the right to education has been gradually expanded both in quantitative and qualitative terms. Of a population of 4.5 million, more than 900,000 are currently undergoing education. In addition, approximately 1 million persons participate regularly in adult education courses. The educational level of the population has risen considerably in recent years: Approximately 83 per cent of people aged 25-64 have education in addition to the compulsory school. 54 per cent of people over 16 years of age have completed upper secondary education, while 26 per cent have higher education. 21