Vol. 4, No. 1. ISSN: 1473-8376 www.hlst.heacademy.ac.uk/johlste PRACTICE PAPER Early Mornings and Apprehension: Active Learning in Lectures Dave Elliott (d.elliott@ucsm.ac.uk) St Martin s College Lancaster, LA1 3JD, UK. DOI:10.3794/johlste.41.86 Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education Abstract It is often recommended that active learning strategies be adopted for use within formal lecture sessions. One of the simplest ways to promote active learning is through the use of question and answer practices, ie, encouraging students to ask, and respond to questions. However, this approach is often hindered by students unwillingness to become involved. This study surveyed students in order to examine the impact of class size and time of day on their willingness to participate in questioning process. Results indicated that class size and time of day did appear to negatively influence students readiness to interact in this manner. Keywords: active learning, class size, apprehension, lecture times Introduction Cannon and Newble (2000) promote the use of active learning within the university teaching environment. In contrast with traditional lecture-based teaching, Cannon and Newble (2000) describe active learning as a process that encourages students to interact with the material being presented. There appear to be many advantages associated with this approach; for example, Gibbs (1992) and Biggs (1999) claim that such processes can facilitate a deeper level of learning, which subsequently should enhance scholarly achievement. Interactive learning may also have the added benefit of creating an internal locus of causality within learners, this being an important constituent of intrinsic motivation (Deci and Ryan, 1985). Strategies often recommended as active or deep learning facilitators include working with others in the form of group or one-to-one discussions, reading or taking part in problem-solving activities (Gibbs, 1992; Cannon and Newble, 2000). Although such practices have traditionally been adopted within supplementary seminar sessions, many educationalists advocate using the active learning approach within the more formal lecture environment (Gibbs, 1992; Biggs, 1999; Fry, Ketteridge and Marshall, 1999). However, despite the apparent advantages, implementation within this context can be problematic. Specifically, the execution of activities such as problem-based learning and group discussions can be time-consuming, and it is thus possible that their adoption could detract from the transmission of the fundamental knowledge that is required for academic achievement. Similarly, many such practices are dependent Dave Elliott is a Lecturer in Sport at St Martin s College, Lancaster. His primary research area is the use of music within the exercise environment.
upon students possessing a core of knowledge (Gibbs, 1992), without which the success of these approaches may be diminished. Thus, lecturers must weigh the proposed benefits of these practices against the need to transmit the required information. Therefore, if active learning is to be included regularly within the formal lecture environment, more lecture friendly methods are required. According to Cannon and Newble (2000), one of the simplest forms of active learning is to encourage students to respond to, and ask questions during lectures. Although less time-consuming and requiring less preparation on the part of the lecturer, the success of this approach is obviously dependent upon the willingness of students to engage in the process. Unfortunately, students do not always embrace the opportunity to become involved in this manner; Cannon and Newble (2000) state that many teachers are disappointed by the reactions to this approach. There are a number of factors that could explain the apparent lack of enthusiasm for this activity. Holloway (1999) and The New York State Research and Educational Services (1998) have presented evidence which suggests that there is a relationship between the time of lecture sessions and student performance, with early morning sessions considered less productive, in terms of learning, than sessions conducted at later times. Although neither study specifically attributed their findings to a lack of student interaction, it is conceivable that this could have at least contributed to the outcome. Alternatively, it is possible that class size may have an influence. In general, traditional lectures are larger, in terms of student numbers, than supplementary seminar sessions. Therefore, any verbal communication by students in lectures is usually in front of a large audience. Evidence presented by Odden (1990) and Habeshaw et al. (1992) has indicated that the degree of student interaction is reduced when being taught in large groups. Accounting for this, it is possible that evaluation apprehension, the fear of negative evaluation by other group members, may affect the degree of interaction. Evaluation apprehension has been found to have a negative influence on the willingness of individuals to interact during group brainstorming activities (Hewstone et al., 1996). It is feasible to suggest that this reaction will manifest within educational settings. Similarly, social anxiety, a more debilitating form of evaluation apprehension, may also be evident. According to Keable (1997), social anxiety is a relatively common phenomenon and, significantly, one of the most pervasive causes is public speaking. Within an educational context, Anderson (2000) and Holt (1982) have presented evidence to suggest that the classroom environment can induce such feelings. Although conducted within the school setting, it is likely that such findings are applicable to other educational sectors. It is also reasonable to assume that evaluation apprehension and social anxiety would be more prominent in large classes, as greater numbers would obviously increase the chance of one being evaluated. Class size might also reduce students contributions because of the phenomena of social loafing and free-riding. According to Hewstone et al. (1996), individuals often feel less identifiable when a member of a relatively large group. A consequence of this anonymity is that certain group members may refrain from making contributions, firstly because they feel it will not be noticed (social loafing), and, secondly, because it is believed that others provide the required input (free-riding). As already stated, potentially, there are numerous factors that could influence the willingness of students to embrace the questioning process, however, this study will focus on those discussed above. The aim of the study is therefore to assess the impact of class size and the time of the lecture session upon the degree of interaction within the formal lecture environment. Method Preliminary investigation The aim of this procedure was to confirm the relevance of the explanations offered in the introduction, thus providing a focus for the principle investigation. Participants Participants were six sport studies lecturers (3 males and 3 females) currently employed at St Martin s College, UK. Years of lecturing experience differed between the members (M = 9.2, SD = 3.8), Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education 4(1), 53-58. 54
however all had been involved in lecturing at degree level for at least five years. As such, participants were considered to be experienced lecturers. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education 4(1), 53-58. 55
Procedure A focus group discussion was conducted to discover if those in attendance had experienced any problems with the level of student interaction, and also, whether any of those present felt that the lack of interaction could be attributed to class size and/or time of day. Results Confirming the issues raised in the introduction, the debate revealed that all six lecturers had found the questioning process to be disappointing. All those involved stated that many students were unwilling to participate in this activity. It was claimed that many students who were reticent in large group lectures became more involved when members of small group seminar sessions, hence supporting the influence of class size. Also, early morning lectures were considered to be particularly problematic. It was also revealed that the majority of lecturers found the apparent lack of enthusiasm for this activity frustrating, with some considering this to be a reflection of their own teaching ability. Principal investigation The aim of this procedure was to examine: (a) whether class size influenced how comfortable students were responding to, and providing questions; (b) whether class size impacted upon perceptions of anonymity, and (c) whether the time of lectures had any effect upon levels of interaction. Participants Participants were fifty-five Sport Studies undergraduate students in their second year of study at St Martin s College, UK. The sample consisted of twenty-six females and twenty-nine males. Participants ranged in age from nineteen to twenty-two years (M = 20.9, SD = 0.9). In terms of academic achievement, the majority of participants possessed a second-class profile. Procedure In order to assess the issues raised, a questionnaire was developed. This presented a series of statements designed to assess the impact of class size and the time of lectures on students willingness to take part in lecturer-led question and answer sessions. The questionnaire was presented to participants prior to a formal lecture session. Participants were instructed to respond to each statement honestly, and asked not to confer with peers whilst completing the questionnaires. A chi squared (χ 2 ) test was utilised to analyse the resultant data. This procedure assessed whether any differences between observed and expected frequencies were statistically significant. Results The results from the questionnaire are contained in Tables 1-6. Response Frequency Response Frequency Never 3 Never 3 In small groups 39 In small groups 35 In large groups 8 In large groups 2 Group size makes no difference 5 Group size makes no difference 15 χ 2 value = 62.74, p = 0.00 - Results statistically significant Table 1: I am most comfortable asking questions χ 2 value = 51.43, p = 0.00 - Results statistically significant Table 2: I am most comfortable answering questions Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education 4(1), 53-58. 56
Response Frequency Response Frequency In small groups 39 Never 19 In large groups 2 Sometimes 34 Group size makes no difference 14 Always 2 χ 2 value = 38.87, p = 0.00 - Results statistically significant Table 3: I feel I learn best χ 2 value = 27.96, p = 0.00 - Results statistically significant Table 4: When I am a member of a large group I feel anonymous Response Frequency Response Frequency Never 44 Early morning lectures 1 Sometimes 10 Mid-morning/Early afternoon lectures 24 Always 1 Afternoon lectures/seminars 10 χ 2 value = 56.11, p = 0.00 - Results statistically significant Late afternoon seminars 2 Table 5: When I am a member of a small group I feel anonymous Time of lecture/seminar has no impact 18 χ 2 value = 36.36, p = 0.00 - Results statistically significant Table 6: I am more likely to interact (i.e. ask and answer questions) with lecturers during Discussion Although the results do not suggest that students will never participate in the questioning process, they do indicate that a number of factors inhibit the level of interaction. All the responses were deemed to exhibit significant deviance from the expected outcomes. Addressing class size, the majority of those questioned felt less comfortable asking and/or answering questions when in relatively large learning groups. Although validated psychometric tests would be required for scientific confirmation, it is probable that evaluation apprehension or social anxiety contribute to this outcome. Furthermore, it appears that the size of the learning group can create feelings of anonymity and thus, when in large groups, students feel less identifiable. Consequently, in some individuals this perception may encourage social loafing or free-riding. Congruent with the views of Keil and Partell (1997) is the fact that the majority of those questioned felt that large class sizes impeded the quality of learning. This finding may, in part, be related to the fact that many students refrain from involvement in the questioning process, and are thus not actively engaged in lecture material. Consequently, the potential for deep learning is reduced. Many respondents also indicated that time of lecture impacted upon the likelihood of interaction. Supporting the view that early morning sessions were particularly problematic, only one of the respondents said they would be more likely to interact during early morning lectures. It would appear that mid-morning lectures are more conducive to verbal interaction. The results of this study suggest a relationship between class size, time of lecture and student interaction. Although they do not necessarily imply that many students will never participate in the questioning process, these findings are concerning. If lecturers intend to use this approach within large group lectures in order to promote active learning, it is possible that the teaching environment may undermine its effectiveness. On the surface it would appear that there is little that can be done to address this issue, as the number of students in a particular class and the time of lectures are dictated externally. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education 4(1), 53-58. 57
Such constraints should not necessarily preclude the use of question and answer sessions within large group lectures. This study is founded on the assumption that interacting in this manner is dependent upon students communicating verbally. However, Angelo and Cross (1993) offer a range of classroom strategies that do not require verbal interaction but still obligate students to be cognitively active. Examples of such strategies include classroom opinion polls. Presenting a question, the lecturer offers a selection of possible answers and the group is polled about the correct answer via a raising of hands. Although not foolproof as some students will simply go with the majority vote, a degree of creativity on the lecturer s part can help alleviate the problem and such an approach can add some fun to sessions. As well as encouraging active learning, classroom opinion polls make it easy to identify those students not engaging, thus reducing the likelihood of social loafing and free-riding. With the Empty Outlines technique students are presented with a summary of the lecture material but with keywords omitted. The task for students is to discover the missing words. To eliminate the need for formal marking, answers could be obtained through direct polling, or, to reduce majority votes, students could be given time to write their responses, transfer them to peers, then the poll could commence. Both these strategies have the advantage of brevity, thus making them relevant for use within this context. Furthermore, monitoring responses will provide the lecturer with a means of assessing the degree of learning and identifying any problematic areas. Because responding in this manner will provide such information, it may lessen the need for students to ask questions. Whether the inclusion of these strategies will alleviate the problems associated with early morning lectures is debatable, as it could be assumed that fatigue is responsible for this. Nevertheless, it is worth implementing such techniques in order to assess their worth in these environments. The results of this study indicate that small group work is preferable and thus the importance of wellstructured seminar sessions is highlighted. However, it is impractical to use seminars as the only mode of delivery and lectures are still useful as a means of delivering information to large groups. Adopting the strategies outlined above should encourage active learning within lectures and negate some of the disadvantages associated with this mode of delivery. With regards to answering questions, the application of such methodologies is preferable to singling out particular students and compelling them to provide an answer. As Gibbs (1992) has suggested, learners should be provided with a learning climate that is safe and supportive, forcing an individual to answer is likely to create the opposite. Finally, the results may offer some solace for lecturers who may interpret student apathy as a reflection of their ability. It would appear that the problem is widespread and rooted more in students anxiety and aversion to early mornings than in the ability of their lecturers. Acknowledgements The author would like to thank Martin Johnes, and the anonymous reviewer for their helpful comments. References Anderson, J. (2000) Teacher questioning and anxiety in the primary classroom. Paper presented at British Education Research Association conference, Cardiff. Angelo, T. A. and Cross, P. K. (1993) Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for College Teachers (2 nd edn.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Biggs, J. (1999) Teaching for Quality Learning at University. Buckingham: Open University Press. Cannon, R. and Newble, D. (2000) A Handbook for Teachers in Universities and Colleges (4 th edn.). London: Kogan Page. Deci, E. L. and Ryan, R. M. (1985) Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behaviour. New York: Plenum Press. Fry, H., Ketteridge, S. and Marshall, S. (1999) A Handbook for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education: Enhancing Academic Practice. London: Kogan Page. Gibbs, G. (1992) Improving the Quality of Student Learning. London: Technical and Education Series. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education 4(1), 53-58. 58
Habeshaw, S., Gibbs, G. and Habeshaw, T. (1992) 53 Problems with Large Classes: Making the Best of a Bad Job. Bristol: Technical and Educational Services Ltd. Hewstone, M., Stroebe, W. and Stephenson, G. H. (1996) Introduction to Social Psychology. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Holloway, J. (1999) Giving our students the time of day. Educational Leadership 57(1). 87-88 Accessed online 05/01/04 - http://www.ascd.org/publications/ed_lead/199909/holloway.html Holt, J. (1982) How Children Fail (revised edn.). Reading: Perseus Books. Keable, D. (1997) The Management of Anxiety: A Guide for Therapists. New York: Churchill Livingstone. Keil, J. and Partell, P. J. (1997) The effect of class size on student performance and retention at Binghamton University. Office of Budget and Institutional Research, Binghamton University. New York State United Teachers (1998) Adolescent sleep needs and school performance. Information Bulletins and Briefing Bulletins 98(19). Accessed online 05/01/04 http://www.nysut.org./research/bulletine/981202adolescentsleep.html Odden, A. (1990) Class size and student achievement: research-based policy alternatives. Education Evaluation and Policy Analysis 12(2), 213-227. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education 4(1), 53-58. 59