Time is of the essence: factors encouraging out-of-class study time

Time is of the essence: factors encouraging out-of-class study time Steve T. Fukuda and Hiroshi Yoshida Introduction Time needed to acquire a foreign language Out-of-class study time is essential in students language learning, but few studies in ELT measure out-of-class study time or investigate how teachers can encourage, rather than demand it. In Japan, out-of-class study time is lower than might be expected, ranging from zero to an hour per week. This study therefore sets out to establish those factors that can increase out-of-class study time without extrinsic motivators such as homework and testing. Results from self-reports and course evaluations suggest that (1) clear course aims, (2) strong student teacher relationships, (3) non-threatening classroom environments, and (4) interactive classroom procedures boost out-of-class study time. Finally, we hope this study will become a catalyst for more in-depth discussion of how to facilitate more productive out-of-class study time, and ultimately students attainment of higher proficiency in the target language. Teachers often blame limited out-of-class study time for the fact that their students do not reach their language learning goals (cf. Hassan and Selamat 2002). Therefore, many teachers tend to increase assignments or implement weekly quizzes or tests to encourage out-ofclass study without considering how these extrinsic schemes usually backfire, especially in the long run (Bénabou and Tirole 2003: 516). Research suggests these extrinsic motivators have only a temporary effect on students, and there has been a lack of research investigating classroom practices that potentially increase out-of-class study time without relying upon these types of extrinsically motivating activities. This study attempts to examine factors that promote out-of-class study time without direct teacher intervention. It is set in a Japanese EFL context, but we expect that there will be implications for teachers working in other settings. With the many individual differences between language learners, calculating the exact time or hourage necessary to acquire a foreign language is a problematic task. None the less, reports have provided rough estimates. For instance, in ESL contexts, Hakuta, Goto Butler, ELT Journal Volume 67/1 January 2013; doi:10.1093/elt/ccs054 31 The Author 2012. Published by Oxford University Press; all rights reserved. Advance Access publication October 12, 2012

Encouraging out-of-class learning The study and Witt (2000) concluded that learners with three to five years of study had a good command of oral proficiency, and those with four to seven years gained a substantial level of academic proficiency. From research in EFL contexts, Nakashima (2006) reported that 2,000 to 5,000 hours are necessary to achieve a basic proficiency in a second language. Unfortunately, studies in EFL contexts, such as Hato (2005), show that students in Japan typically receive only 920 hours of classroom instruction before senior high school graduation. Additionally, national surveys on out-of-class study time in Japan report university students studying less than an hour a week independently (Benesse Educational Research & Development Center 2008). These reports of insufficient study time call for more innovative classroom practice that may result in an increase in out-of-class study, thus helping to ensure students have time to acquire a basic proficiency in English. The Ministry of Education in Japan, like many in other countries, aims for university graduates to be able to use English in the workplace (Asia TEFL 2011). Attempting to clarify this rather vague statement, Terauchi, Koike, and Takada (2008) surveyed 7,354 business persons and concluded that using English in the workplace meant the skills of (1) delivering presentations in English, (2) participating in business negotiations, and (3) having a proficiency level of at least 800 points on the TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication). Interestingly, it is estimated that an EFL learner would need 1,350 hours of study to attain 800 points on the TOEIC 1 (Prolingua 2000). A few studies, such as Schneider s (2001) investigation of assigning pair-taping as a choice for fluency practice, have examined the influence of non-extrinsic, university-level classroom practices on out-of-class study time. Sawada (2009) concluded from a survey of course evaluations of 528 students that student teacher relationships and teaching styles have a significant effect on psychology students learning experiences beyond the classroom. Also, from students self-report data from 32 non-language courses, Fujioka (2001) found that class structure and the teacher s verbal cues influenced learning experiences outside the classroom. The main purpose of our study was to examine factors encouraging out-of-class study time in an English language course, which did not rely on extrinsic motivators. The first author was the instructor of the class and the second author was the observer and data collector. First, we analysed our students course evaluations to measure if they had studied out-of-class during our course more than on other courses that had used extrinsic motivators such as assigning homework or implementing weekly vocabulary quizzes for grades. Then, further analysis of weekly self-reports measured the students out-of-class study time, as well as what they had studied. Finally, to investigate factors that increase out-of-class study, we developed and administered an end-of-course questionnaire to analyse further the results of the course evaluations and self-reports. 32 Steve T. Fukuda and Hiroshi Yoshida

Participants table 1 Course schedule A sample of university engineering students in the Japanese EFL context was chosen for the study. The class was chosen out of a total of 27 courses in our general education English curriculum titled Communicative English. The course was a required English course in a general education curriculum with 20 students per class. The students were assigned to the class based on their student ID number. A preliminary survey reported an average of 60.9 per cent of the students in the department did not engage in out-of-class study. Our context mirrors Lafaye and Tsuda s (2002) illustration of the Japanese university context. They illustrate a situation where students sit in class with blank expressions on their faces or unconvincingly going through the motions and make little progress and seem fed up with English and generally disappointed by their English learning experience (ibid.: 146). The results of Lafaye and Tsuda s survey of 518 Japanese university students suggested students had an understanding of the usefulness and importance of English, but most were not self-motivated to study it. The course schedule (Table 1) had the aim of fostering oral presentation skills, a skill in demand in the workplace, with students performing four presentations and participating in communication activities (the course syllabus therefore mirrored the Japanese Ministry of Education s aims for English in the workplace). The first presentation was limited to three minutes to promote learning through trial-and-error; presentation skills were gradually improved through longer presentations towards the end of the course. Between those classes in which they gave presentations, students discussed and practised skills such as ad-libbing, checked and revised presentation content and the vocabulary and grammar of their memos and scripts, and engaged in communicative activities. Most importantly for our study, the teacher did not use extrinsic motivators, such as assigning homework or implementing weekly quizzes or tests. Although we encouraged study time outside of class verbally, we did not directly tell students what to study or how to study. We did, however, explicitly tell the students that the amount of out-of-class study they reported would not affect the grade we gave them at the end of the course. Class Day Class content 1 10/6 Course orientation 2 10/13 Presentation 1 (three minutes) 3 10/20 Adding audience interaction to the presentation 4 11/10 Using stories and examples in the presentation 5 11/24 Presentation 2 (five minutes) 6 12/1 Gathering data for the presentation 7 12/8 How to present graphs and figures 8 12/15 Presentation 3 (eight minutes) 9 12/22 Reflection and setting new presentation goals 10 1/19 Understanding ad-libbing 11 1/26 Presentation rehearsals 12 2/2 Presentation 4 (ten minutes) 13 2/9 Wrap-up reflection Time is of the essence 33

Method Results Measurements consisted of an in-house student course evaluation administered in Week 12 of the course, weekly self-reports of outof-class study time for the class focused on in this study and for other classes the students were taking, and a questionnaire concerning out-of-class study time; this was administered in Week 13, the final meeting of the course. From the in-house course evaluations administered in all university courses, we extracted two questions pertaining to (1) out-of-class study time and (2) satisfaction with the course. The self-reports were filled out by each student in the last ten minutes of every class asking for (a) an estimate of the amount of out-of-class study time, (b) what was studied, and (c) why. Students who attended the final class completed the questionnaire in which they reflected on the whole semester by reporting how long they studied each week what motivated them to study why they studied. Before developing our analysis of study time, we first compared the course evaluation results on study time and class satisfaction from our course with other courses the students were taking. After it was confirmed that our class was above average in both study time and class satisfaction, we analysed the self-reports and administered the questionnaire. This enabled us to check for any inconsistencies with the student self-reports and to look for any trends influencing out-of-class study time. Students reported on weekly out-of-class study time and overall satisfaction of the course in the course evaluations. Results of study time from all 27 English courses in the Department revealed students on our English course engaged in more study time outside of class than students on the other 26 courses (Table 2). Students were asked how long they spent each week studying outside of class, answering on a five-point Likert scale from No study (1) to Over two hours of study (5). Our sample resulted in an average of 3.3 (i.e. 60 to 90 minutes per week), whereas the average of all courses combined was 2.5 (i.e. 30 to 60 minutes). According to syllabi and informal conversations with teachers from the other courses, out-of-class study on those courses was explicitly encouraged by assigning homework (16 courses), or implementing weekly quizzes (7 courses), or tests (21 courses). After confirming results of an above-average course satisfaction rating and out-of-class study time report, we then examined self-reports of out-of-class study time for all students on our course. For instance, the reports of out-of-class study time in Week 3 would cover the period from the time the class ended in Week 2 to the beginning of class in Week 3. Figure 1 represents the average number of minutes of weekly out-of-class study time per student, with an overall average of 49.8 minutes per week. The results for out-of-class study time during Weeks 5, 8, 10, 11, and 12 were higher than other weeks (M = 72.8 minutes; N = 19 students). The students reports of what and why they studied each week revealed the greatest increase in out-of-class study time 34 Steve T. Fukuda and Hiroshi Yoshida

Dept. English courses (n = 27) Average no. of student responses per class Q1: study time Q2: satisfaction table 2 Results of student course evaluation Other courses (n =26) Mean 20.3 2.5 4.0 Lowest value 10 1.1 2.0 Highest value 30 3.2 4.9 mode = 23 median = 2.5 median = 4.1 Our course (n = 1) 18 3.3 4.7 Q1: How long did you spend each week studying outside of class? (5 = over 120 minutes, 4 = 90 minutes, 3 = 60 minutes, 2 = 30 minutes, 1 = 0 minutes) Q2: Judging from the overall experience, how satisfied are you with the course? (5 = very satisfied, 4 = satisfied, 3 = neither, 2 = dissatisfied, 1 = deeply dissatisfied) was motivated by their presentations in subsequent classes; students spent time preparing or rehearsing their presentations. Week 10 being the class before the month-long winter break, the teacher encouraged students to study English for a few minutes each day, not specifying what to study. Week 11, which was the rehearsal class before the final presentations, led to an increase in out-of-class study time. As already noted, study time increased due to forthcoming presentations; this natural occurrence suggests that classes which are designed to engage students actively, for example through presentations, have a positive influence on out-of-class study. In the other weeks, however, students reported that out-of-class studies included collecting data and writing exercises for future presentations described in the syllabus, or reading novels or technical papers, listening to music, and preparing for proficiency tests. To investigate what prompted students to study outside of class, we administered the questionnaire in the final meeting. A total of 19 students out of 20 completed the questionnaire (with students providing figure 1 Out-of-class study time: class average in minutes Time is of the essence 35

table 3 Factors encouraging study outside of class Category Number of answers Student comments (translated by authors) Presentation skills 13 Presentations would increase my communication skills. Teacher 10 It was fun to talk to the teacher. Class content 6 I wanted to be able to use the English in the next class. Homework 6 I assigned myself vocabulary homework I might use in the next class. Class atmosphere 4 It was a friendly atmosphere and we didn t mind mistakes. Handouts were easy to understand 1 Everything we needed to know was on the handouts. Classmates 1 Everyone else was having fun using English too. (N = 19) more than one answer) and results are shown in Table 3. We classified their answers into seven categories, with the students reporting course aims (i.e. presentation skills) as the strongest category. Some additional student responses (translated by the authors) are listed below: Because it will connect to bettering my communication skills. Being able to do presentations in English will be very useful in my future. If I could not do my presentation well, I would be embarrassed. If I do not prepare, I would not be able to speak. I would waste class time, if I did not prepare my presentation. These results are similar to Ryan s (2009) conclusion that Japanese students are instrumentally motivated, in our case study due to the matching of syllabus and workplace demands (as mentioned above), thus motivating students to study outside of class. The second theme which can be identified within student comments was their mention of strong student teacher relationships. Here are some examples (translated by the authors): The teacher has a very interesting class and because it is very useful, I want to learn as much as I can from him. Because the teacher is friendly, I am not embarrassed to speak English, and he made a good classroom environment. The teacher was really enthusiastic in his teaching. Table 4 illustrates the results of the final survey question asking if attitudes towards studying English outside of the classroom had changed. Eighteen of the 19 students who attended the final class reported positive attitude changes towards studying English outside of the classroom. Interestingly, students reported their strong student teacher relationship and the course 36 Steve T. Fukuda and Hiroshi Yoshida

table 4 Factors influencing attitude change towards out-of-class study Category Number of answers Student comments (translated by authors) Teacher 8 The teacher always talked to each and every student. Presentation 5 I felt I was getting better gradually with more practice. Class was fun 3 The class was activity based and fun. and interesting Others 2 All handouts were flexible and easy to understand. (N = 19) aims of developing presentation skills had had a strong influence on their attitude change towards out-of-class study time. The remaining student mentioned he already liked English, saying there was no room to make his attitude towards studying English out-of-class any more positive. Students also reported a positive attitude change towards out-of-class study time due to the non-threatening classroom environment and classroom procedures. A few of the students further comments are as follows (author translation): Student teacher relationships The teacher always talked to each and every one of us. The teacher remembered each student s name and face. Non-threatening classroom environment I did not have to worry about mistakes when I spoke. I felt a sense of community in the classroom. Classroom procedures The teacher was interesting and there were a lot of activities in group work. It was easy to follow the course syllabus. It motivated me because I needed the power to think for myself in this class. Because the class would improve my communication and presentation skills. The class was well-prepared. From the results above, we find that the main factor influencing out-ofclass study time was the clear class aim of improving presentation skills. Students understood the aims as they were verbally repeated each week and written in detail in the syllabus. The students need to develop presentation skills for their future in the workplace increased study outside the classroom. Most students also reported that they prepared for the presentations, which increased their motivation to study out-of-class, because they did not want to embarrass themselves by doing a bad presentation or waste valuable class time. Time is of the essence 37

Pedagogical implications Also, it was apparent from the questionnaire that students felt that their relationship with the teacher (who was friendly and consistently encouraging them to speak without hesitation or worrying too much about mistakes) also influenced out-of-class study time. Likewise, students felt a more positive attitude to study outside class because of the teacher s enthusiasm towards supporting their English studies. In addition, students reported that the teacher remembering every student s face and name helped them foster a stronger student teacher relationship, which in turn enhanced their attitude towards out-of-class study time. Furthermore, three students mentioned that classroom procedures, such as doing group work, influenced attitudes towards out-of-class study time. Finally, the design of the course was presented clearly allowing them to create their own out-of-class study plans to match the syllabus and their own schedules. In sum, we found out-of-class study time potentially influenced by the following four factors: clear course aims strong student teacher relationships a non-threatening classroom environment interactive classroom procedures. The amount of time students need to attain proficiency in a foreign language is very large when compared to the instruction time they experience. To encourage out-of-class study, many teachers might assign homework or prepare tests forgetting the hidden costs of extrinsic motivation that reduce the agent s motivation to undertake similar tasks in the future (Bénabou and Tirole op.cit.: 492). Instead, from our analysis, we suggest the four factors mentioned above are more likely to improve out-of-class study time. Below is a list of detailed suggestions to help teachers increase out-of-class study time without extrinsic motivators. 1 Clear course aims: something that will be readily useful to the students. For instance, the job market is looking for employees with English presentation skills and this can serve as an instrumental motivator for students as opposed to 15 weeks of just practising conversations or memorizing never-to-be-used situational language. 2 Strong student teacher relationships: teachers can create positive attitude changes and better classroom environments by simply (or not so simply) remembering names and faces, and interacting with each and every student as much as possible. By increasing rapport, students can be encouraged to study more outside of class. 3 Non-threatening classroom environments: classrooms in which students are not worrying about mistakes and where they can learn through trial-and-error also improve attitudes towards studying outside of the classroom. However, teachers must bear in mind the level of the class by making sure it is not too easy or too difficult, just appropriately challenging. Another potential motivator for increasing out-of-class study time is giving students choices about what type of language or material to study. 4 Interactive classroom procedures: conducting group work, holding presentations, and calling students by name are all procedures to 38 Steve T. Fukuda and Hiroshi Yoshida

Implications for further research Conclusion engage learners. Additionally, classes in which students can prepare beforehand and use what they prepared in subsequent classes encourage out-of-class study time. Authentic student-centredness, not to be mistaken for students simply doing activities designated by the teacher, but in which students can voice their opinions on activity content or the activity itself, is a potential motivator for increasing out-of-class study time. Also, taking time to help students understand the what and how of activities, and to review and prepare during their out-of-class study time can further motivate and enhance out-of-class study. Many teachers at the tertiary level might feel the necessity to use different methods and techniques to encourage their students to learn. However, the above factors support and motivate out-of-class study at any level; even something as simple as remembering names or providing a relaxed and safe classroom atmosphere can build a stronger student teacher relationship. Perhaps teachers in the university educational context tend to forget the importance of these factors and so it is essential for them to reflect and review their syllabi, relationships, environment, and classroom methods to improve their students out-of-class study time. Teachers could start by asking themselves the following: Is my syllabus clearly laid out each week and as a whole, so that students can understand the course aims and create study plans? Is what we are doing in the classroom stimulating students to continue their study outside of class? Is the classroom environment threatening to students? Is the student teacher relationship we have built strong, trusting, and healthy enough that it encourages a positive attitude towards our subject and out-of-class study time? Though we have yet to understand the ideal amount of out-of-class study time, we must realize the potential difficulties inherent in extrinsic motivators, which aim to prompt students to study out-of-class. Furthermore, because our study-time results are still only around an hour a week, much more investigation of out-of-class study time is still needed. Research should help teachers understand what could be done to stimulate and increase out-of-class study time. For instance, various classroom designs and procedures could be investigated, and how each factor influences out-of-class study time could be measured. In the same manner, a list of the steps teachers could take to encourage students out-of-class study or to promote stronger student teacher relationships could be mapped. Finally, there is also a need for effective measurement instruments to examine study time other than through student self-reporting, and to investigate how much learning continues after the students have completed their taught courses. We hope this paper is a catalyst for discussion concerning the ways in which we can increase students out-of-class study time beyond relying only on extrinsic motivators such as setting homework or in-class tests. Thus, we must consider how we, as teachers, influence and encourage students study habits not only in the classroom but outside as well. Time is of the essence 39

This consideration will potentially lead to more learning and ultimately an attainment of higher proficiency in the target language. Final revised version received June 2012 Note 1 Equivalent to B2 on the Common European Framework of Reference. See http://users. skynet.be/toeic.belned/toeic_can-do-levels. pdf (accessed on 28 June 2012). References Asia TEFL. 2011. Symposium on national English ability tests in Asia. Ninth Asia TEFL International Conference. Seoul, Korea. Bénabou, R. and J. Tirole. 2003. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Review of Economic Studies 70/3: 489 520. Benesse Educational Research & Development Center. 2008. Daigakuseino Gakushu Seikatsu Jitaichosa Hokokusho [Report on University Students Studies and Lifestyles]. Available at http:// benesse.jp/berd/center/open/report/daigaku_ jittai/hon/index.html (accessed on 8 February 2011). Fujioka, K. 2001. A study of the teaching learning process in the university classroom: through the participant observation in the university classroom. Kyoto University Researches in Higher Education 7: 1 23. Hakuta, K., Y. Goto Butler, and D. Witt. 2000. How long does it take English learners to attain proficiency? Berkeley, CA: Policy Reports, University of California Linguistic Minority Research Institute. Hassan, F. and N. F. Selamat. 2002. Why aren t students proficient in ESL: the teachers perspective. The English Teacher. Available at http://www.melta.org.my/et/2002/wp10.htm (accessed on 15 September 2011). Hato, Y. 2005. Problems in top-down goal setting in second language education: a case study of the Action Plan to Cultivate Japanese with English Abilities. JALT Journal 27/1: 33 52. Lafaye, B. and S. Tsuda. 2002. Attitudes towards English language learning in higher education in Japan, and the place of English in Japanese society. Intercultural Communication Studies 11/3: 145 61. Nakashima, K. 2006. Bokokugoigaino kotobawo kodomoga manabuigi: bairingarukyouikukarano shiten [ Reasons for children to learn another language: from the perspectives of bilingual education ]. BERD 5: 18 22. Prolingua. 2000. TOEIC information. Available at http://www.prolingua.co.jp/ jjapanese/jjtoeic.html (accessed on 16 September 2011). Ryan, S. 2009. Self and identity in L2 motivation in Japan: the ideal L2 self and Japanese learners of English in Z. Dörnyei and E. Ushioda (eds.). Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Sawada, T. 2009. The effectiveness of using students' multidimensional course evaluations: including aspects of formation of a learning community and students' self-evaluation of their learning. Journal of the Liberal and General Education Society of Japan 31/2: 132 9. Schneider, P. 2001. Pair taping: increasing motivation and achievement with a fluency practice. TESL-EJ: 5/2. Available at http:// www.tesl-ej.org/wordpress/issues/volume5/ ej18/ej18a2/?wscr (accessed on 28 September 2011). Terauchi, H., I. Koike, and T. Takada. 2008. Kigyoga Motomeru Eigoryoku [English Abilities Businesses are Demanding]. Available at http:// www.toeic.or.jp/info/img/003/summary.pdf (accessed on 15 September 2011). The authors Steve T. Fukuda is currently working as a Lecturer in the Faculty of Integrated Arts and Sciences at the University of Tokushima. He teaches EFL and TESOL while managing the university s self-access centre. He has research interests and publications in learner autonomy, learner motivation, language learner advising, and self-access language learning. Email: steve@ias.tokushima-u.ac.jp Hiroshi Yoshida is an Assistant Professor at the Centre of University Extension in the University of Tokushima. He holds an MA in mathematics, specializing in number theory. His research interests and publications are in lesson improvements for science-related subjects and faculty development. Email: h-yosida@cue.tokushima-u.ac.jp 40 Steve T. Fukuda and Hiroshi Yoshida